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  • What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

  • Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
  • Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
  • Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
  • Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

  • Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
  • Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
  • Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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case study research design methods

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Normal distribution
  • Degrees of freedom
  • Null hypothesis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Control groups
  • Mixed methods research
  • Non-probability sampling
  • Quantitative research
  • Ecological validity

Research bias

  • Rosenthal effect
  • Implicit bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Selection bias
  • Negativity bias
  • Status quo bias

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Research Method

Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Case Study Research

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

  • Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
  • Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
  • Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
  • Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
  • Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
  • Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
  • Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

  • The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
  • The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
  • The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
  • The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
  • The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

  • Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
  • Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
  • Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
  • Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

  • In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
  • Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
  • Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
  • Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
  • Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
  • Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

  • Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
  • Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
  • Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
  • Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
  • Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
  • Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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Case Study Research and Applications

Case Study Research and Applications Design and Methods

  • Robert K. Yin - COSMOS Corporation
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Winner of the 2019 McGuffey Longevity Award from the Textbook & Academic Authors Association (TAA)

Recognized as one of the most cited methodology books in the social sciences, the Sixth Edition of Robert K. Yin's bestselling text provides a complete portal to the world of case study research. With the integration of 11 applications in this edition, the book gives readers access to exemplary case studies drawn from a wide variety of academic and applied fields. Ultimately, Case Study Research and Applications will guide students in the successful use and application of the case study research method.

See what’s new to this edition by selecting the Features tab on this page. Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

For assistance with your order: Please email us at [email protected] or connect with your SAGE representative.

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Supplements

Password-protected Instructor Resources include the following:

  • An expanded glossary provided by the author in the form of downloadable Briefs.
  • Additional tutorials written by the author which correspond to Chapters 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6.
  • A selection of author Robert Yin's SAGE journal articles.
  • Tables and figures from the book available for download.

“The book is filled with tips to the researcher on how to master the craft of doing research overall and specifically how to account for multi-layered cases.”

“Yin covers all of the basic and advanced knowledge for conducting case study and why they are useful for specific research studies without getting lost in the weeds.”

“The applications enhance the original material because it gives the reader concrete examples.”

“Yin is much more in-depth on case study methods both within a general qualitative text and any other case study text I have seen.”

On demand used as recommendation for basic literature for case study research

An essential reading for people doing case studies.

very thoruogh introduction

Very good introduction to Case Study design. I have used case study approach for my PhD study. I would recommend this book for an indepth understanding of case study design for research projects.

Dr Siew Lee School of Nursing, Midwifery and Paramedic Practice Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen.

The book is a really good introduction to case study research and is full of useful examples. I will recommend as the definitive source for students interested in pursuing this further in their projects.

In our Doctor of Ministerial Leadership (DML), Case Study is the Methodology that is required in this program. Robert Yin's book provides the foundational knowledge needed to conduct research using his Case Study design.

NEW TO THIS EDITION:

  • Includes 11 in-depth applications that show how researchers have implemented case study methods successfully.
  • Increases reference to relativist and constructivist approaches to case study research, as well as how case studies can be part of mixed methods projects.
  • Places greater emphasis on using plausible rival explanations to bolster case study quality.
  • Discusses synthesizing findings across case studies in a multiple-case study in more detail.
  • Adds an expanded list of 15 fields that have text or texts devoted to case study research.
  • Sharpens discussion of distinguishing research from non-research case studies.
  • The author brings to light at least three remaining gaps to be filled in the future:
  • how rival explanations can become more routinely integrated into all case study research;
  • the difference between case-based and variable-based approaches to designing and analyzing case studies; and
  • the relationship between case study research and qualitative research.

KEY FEATURES:

  • Numerous conceptual exercises, illustrative exhibits, vignettes, and a glossary make the book eminently accessible.
  • Boxes throughout offer more in-depth real-world examples of research.
  • Short, sidebar tips help succinctly explain concepts and allow students to check their understanding.
  • Exercises throughout offer students the chance to immediately apply their knowledge.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Preface: Spotlighting "Case Study Research"

Chapter 1: Getting Started

Research Methods and Design

  • Action Research
  • Case Study Design
  • Literature Review
  • Quantitative Research Methods
  • Qualitative Research Methods
  • Mixed Methods Study
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  • Research Ethics and Quality
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a research strategy whose characteristics include

  • a focus on the interrelationships that constitute the context of a specific entity (such as an organization, event, phenomenon, or person),
  • analysis of the relationship between the contextual factors and the entity being studied, and
  • the explicit purpose of using those insights (of the interactions between contextual relationships and the entity in question) to generate theory and/or contribute to extant theory. 

SAGE Research Methods Videos

What is the value of working with case studies.

Professor Todd Landman explains how case studies can be used in research. He discusses the importance of choosing a case study correctly and warns about limitations of case study research.

This is just one segment in a series about case studies. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods:

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The case study approach

Sarah crowe.

1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Kathrin Cresswell

2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Ann Robertson

3 School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Anthony Avery

Aziz sheikh.

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables ​ Tables1, 1 , ​ ,2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 - 7 ].

Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ]

Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]

Example of a case study investigating the introduction of the electronic health records[ 5 ]

Example of a case study investigating the formal and informal ways students learn about patient safety[ 6 ]

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table ​ (Table5), 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Definitions of a case study

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table ​ (Table1), 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables ​ Tables2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 - 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables ​ Tables2 2 and ​ and3, 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table ​ (Table6). 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

Example of epistemological approaches that may be used in case study research

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table ​ Table7 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

Example of a checklist for rating a case study proposal[ 8 ]

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table ​ (Table3), 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table ​ Table3) 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 - 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table ​ (Table2 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table ​ (Table3 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table ​ Table3, 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table ​ (Table4), 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table ​ Table8 8 )[ 8 , 18 - 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table ​ (Table9 9 )[ 8 ].

Potential pitfalls and mitigating actions when undertaking case study research

Stake's checklist for assessing the quality of a case study report[ 8 ]

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

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case study research design methods

Case Study Research: Methods and Designs

Case study research is a type of qualitative research design. It’s often used in the social sciences because it involves…

Case Study Method

Case study research is a type of qualitative research design. It’s often used in the social sciences because it involves observing subjects, or cases, in their natural setting, with minimal interference from the researcher.

In the case study method , researchers pose a specific question about an individual or group to test their theories or hypothesis. This can be done by gathering data from interviews with key informants.

Here’s what you need to know about case study research design .

What Is The Case Study Method?

Main approaches to data collection, case study research methods, how case studies are used, case study model.

Case study research is a great way to understand the nuances of a matter that can get lost in quantitative research methods. A case study is distinct from other qualitative studies in the following ways:

  • It’s interested in the effect of a set of circumstances on an individual or group.
  • It begins with a specific question about one or more cases.
  • It focuses on individual accounts and experiences.

Here are the primary features of case study research:

  • Case study research methods typically involve the researcher asking a few questions of one person or a small number of people—known as respondents—to test one hypothesis.
  • Case study in research methodology may apply triangulation to collect data, in which the researcher uses several sources, including documents and field data. This is then analyzed and interpreted to form a hypothesis that can be tested through further research or validated by other researchers.
  • The case study method requires clear concepts and theories to guide its methods. A well-defined research question is crucial when conducting a case study because the results of the study depend on it. The best approach to answering a research question is to challenge the existing theories, hypotheses or assumptions.
  • Concepts are defined using objective language with no reference to preconceived notions that individuals might have about them. The researcher sets out to discover by asking specific questions on how people think or perceive things in their given situation.

They commonly use the case study method in business, management, psychology, sociology, political science and other related fields.

A fundamental requirement of qualitative research is recording observations that provide an understanding of reality. When it comes to the case study method, there are two major approaches that can be used to collect data: document review and fieldwork.

A case study in research methodology also includes literature review, the process by which the researcher collects all data available through historical documents. These might include books, newspapers, journals, videos, photographs and other written material. The researcher may also record information using video cameras to capture events as they occur. The researcher can also go through materials produced by people involved in the case study to gain an insight into their lives and experiences.

Field research involves participating in interviews and observations directly. Observation can be done during telephone interviews, events or public meetings, visits to homes or workplaces, or by shadowing someone for a period of time. The researcher can conduct one-on-one interviews with individuals or group interviews where several people are interviewed at once.

Let’s look now at case study methodology.

The case study method can be divided into three stages: formulation of objectives; collection of data; and analysis and interpretation. The researcher first makes a judgment about what should be studied based on their knowledge. Next, they gather data through observations and interviews. Here are some of the common case study research methods:

One of the most basic methods is the survey. Respondents are asked to complete a questionnaire with open-ended and predetermined questions. It usually takes place through face-to-face interviews, mailed questionnaires or telephone interviews. It can even be done by an online survey.

2. Semi-structured Interview

For case study research a more complex method is the semi-structured interview. This involves the researcher learning about the topic by listening to what others have to say. This usually occurs through one-on-one interviews with the sample. Semi-structured interviews allow for greater flexibility and can obtain information that structured questionnaires can’t.

3. Focus Group Interview

Another method is the focus group interview, where the researcher asks a few people to take part in an open-ended discussion on certain themes or topics. The typical group size is 5–15 people. This method allows researchers to delve deeper into people’s opinions, views and experiences.

4. Participant Observation

Participant observation is another method that involves the researcher gaining insight into an experience by joining in and taking part in normal events. The people involved don’t always know they’re being studied, but the researcher observes and records what happens through field notes.

Case study research design can use one or several of these methods depending on the context.

Case studies are widely used in the social sciences. To understand the impact of socio-economic forces, interpersonal dynamics and other human conditions, sometimes there’s no other way than to study one case at a time and look for patterns and data afterward.

It’s for the same reasons that case studies are used in business. Here are a few uses:

  • Case studies can be used as tools to educate and give examples of situations and problems that might occur and how they were resolved. They can also be used for strategy development and implementation.
  • Case studies can evaluate the success of a program or project. They can help teams improve their collaboration by identifying areas that need improvements, such as team dynamics, communication, roles and responsibilities and leadership styles.
  • Case studies can explore how people’s experiences affect the working environment. Because the study involves observing and analyzing concrete details of life, they can inform theories on how an individual or group interacts with their environment.
  • Case studies can evaluate the sustainability of businesses. They’re useful for social, environmental and economic impact studies because they look at all aspects of a business or organization. This gives researchers a holistic view of the dynamics within an organization.
  • We can use case studies to identify problems in organizations or businesses. They can help spot problems that are invisible to customers, investors, managers and employees.
  • Case studies are used in education to show students how real-world issues or events can be sorted out. This enables students to identify and deal with similar situations in their lives.

And that’s not all. Case studies are incredibly versatile, which is why they’re used so widely.

Human beings are complex and they interact with each other in their everyday life in various ways. The researcher observes a case and tries to find out how the patterns of behavior are created, including their causal relations. Case studies help understand one or more specific events that have been observed. Here are some common methods:

1. Illustrative case study

This is where the researcher observes a group of people doing something. Studying an event or phenomenon this way can show cause-and-effect relationships between various variables.

2. Cumulative case study

A cumulative case study is one that involves observing the same set of phenomena over a period. Cumulative case studies can be very helpful in understanding processes, which are things that happen over time. For example, if there are behavioral changes in people who move from one place to another, the researcher might want to know why these changes occurred.

3. Exploratory case study

An exploratory case study collects information that will answer a question. It can help researchers better understand social, economic, political or other social phenomena.

There are several other ways to categorize case studies. They may be chronological case studies, where a researcher observes events over time. In the comparative case study, the researcher compares one or more groups of people, places, or things to draw conclusions about them. In an intervention case study, the researcher intervenes to change the behavior of the subjects. The study method depends on the needs of the research team.

Deciding how to analyze the information at our disposal is an important part of effective management. An understanding of the case study model can help. With Harappa’s Thinking Critically course, managers and young professionals receive input and training on how to level up their analytic skills. Knowledge of frameworks, reading real-life examples and lived wisdom of faculty come together to create a dynamic and exciting course that helps teams leap to the next level.

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as Objectives Of Research , What are Qualitative Research Methods , How To Make A Problem Statement and How To Improve your Cognitive Skills to upgrade your knowledge and skills.

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case study research design methods

Case Study Research Design

The case study research design have evolved over the past few years as a useful tool for investigating trends and specific situations in many scientific disciplines.

This article is a part of the guide:

  • Research Designs
  • Quantitative and Qualitative Research
  • Literature Review
  • Quantitative Research Design
  • Descriptive Research

Browse Full Outline

  • 1 Research Designs
  • 2.1 Pilot Study
  • 2.2 Quantitative Research Design
  • 2.3 Qualitative Research Design
  • 2.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Research
  • 3.1 Case Study
  • 3.2 Naturalistic Observation
  • 3.3 Survey Research Design
  • 3.4 Observational Study
  • 4.1 Case-Control Study
  • 4.2 Cohort Study
  • 4.3 Longitudinal Study
  • 4.4 Cross Sectional Study
  • 4.5 Correlational Study
  • 5.1 Field Experiments
  • 5.2 Quasi-Experimental Design
  • 5.3 Identical Twins Study
  • 6.1 Experimental Design
  • 6.2 True Experimental Design
  • 6.3 Double Blind Experiment
  • 6.4 Factorial Design
  • 7.1 Literature Review
  • 7.2 Systematic Reviews
  • 7.3 Meta Analysis

The case study has been especially used in social science, psychology, anthropology and ecology.

This method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations. For example, if an anthropologist were to live amongst a remote tribe, whilst their observations might produce no quantitative data, they are still useful to science.

case study research design methods

What is a Case Study?

Basically, a case study is an in depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping statistical survey . It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic.

Whilst it will not answer a question completely, it will give some indications and allow further elaboration and hypothesis creation on a subject.

The case study research design is also useful for testing whether scientific theories and models actually work in the real world. You may come out with a great computer model for describing how the ecosystem of a rock pool works but it is only by trying it out on a real life pool that you can see if it is a realistic simulation.

For psychologists, anthropologists and social scientists they have been regarded as a valid method of research for many years. Scientists are sometimes guilty of becoming bogged down in the general picture and it is sometimes important to understand specific cases and ensure a more holistic approach to research .

H.M.: An example of a study using the case study research design.

Case Study

The Argument for and Against the Case Study Research Design

Some argue that because a case study is such a narrow field that its results cannot be extrapolated to fit an entire question and that they show only one narrow example. On the other hand, it is argued that a case study provides more realistic responses than a purely statistical survey.

The truth probably lies between the two and it is probably best to try and synergize the two approaches. It is valid to conduct case studies but they should be tied in with more general statistical processes.

For example, a statistical survey might show how much time people spend talking on mobile phones, but it is case studies of a narrow group that will determine why this is so.

The other main thing to remember during case studies is their flexibility. Whilst a pure scientist is trying to prove or disprove a hypothesis , a case study might introduce new and unexpected results during its course, and lead to research taking new directions.

The argument between case study and statistical method also appears to be one of scale. Whilst many 'physical' scientists avoid case studies, for psychology, anthropology and ecology they are an essential tool. It is important to ensure that you realize that a case study cannot be generalized to fit a whole population or ecosystem.

Finally, one peripheral point is that, when informing others of your results, case studies make more interesting topics than purely statistical surveys, something that has been realized by teachers and magazine editors for many years. The general public has little interest in pages of statistical calculations but some well placed case studies can have a strong impact.

How to Design and Conduct a Case Study

The advantage of the case study research design is that you can focus on specific and interesting cases. This may be an attempt to test a theory with a typical case or it can be a specific topic that is of interest. Research should be thorough and note taking should be meticulous and systematic.

The first foundation of the case study is the subject and relevance. In a case study, you are deliberately trying to isolate a small study group, one individual case or one particular population.

For example, statistical analysis may have shown that birthrates in African countries are increasing. A case study on one or two specific countries becomes a powerful and focused tool for determining the social and economic pressures driving this.

In the design of a case study, it is important to plan and design how you are going to address the study and make sure that all collected data is relevant. Unlike a scientific report, there is no strict set of rules so the most important part is making sure that the study is focused and concise; otherwise you will end up having to wade through a lot of irrelevant information.

It is best if you make yourself a short list of 4 or 5 bullet points that you are going to try and address during the study. If you make sure that all research refers back to these then you will not be far wrong.

With a case study, even more than a questionnaire or survey , it is important to be passive in your research. You are much more of an observer than an experimenter and you must remember that, even in a multi-subject case, each case must be treated individually and then cross case conclusions can be drawn .

How to Analyze the Results

Analyzing results for a case study tends to be more opinion based than statistical methods. The usual idea is to try and collate your data into a manageable form and construct a narrative around it.

Use examples in your narrative whilst keeping things concise and interesting. It is useful to show some numerical data but remember that you are only trying to judge trends and not analyze every last piece of data. Constantly refer back to your bullet points so that you do not lose focus.

It is always a good idea to assume that a person reading your research may not possess a lot of knowledge of the subject so try to write accordingly.

In addition, unlike a scientific study which deals with facts, a case study is based on opinion and is very much designed to provoke reasoned debate. There really is no right or wrong answer in a case study.

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  • Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

  • Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
  • Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
  • Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
  • Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

  • Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
  • Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
  • Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 22 February 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

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Writing a Case Study

Hands holding a world globe

What is a case study?

A Map of the world with hands holding a pen.

A Case study is: 

  • An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes​​ includes quantitative methodology.
  • Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research.
  • Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event.
  • Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

What are the different types of case studies?

Man and woman looking at a laptop

Note: These are the primary case studies. As you continue to research and learn

about case studies you will begin to find a robust list of different types. 

Who are your case study participants?

Boys looking through a camera

What is triangulation ? 

Validity and credibility are an essential part of the case study. Therefore, the researcher should include triangulation to ensure trustworthiness while accurately reflecting what the researcher seeks to investigate.

Triangulation image with examples

How to write a Case Study?

When developing a case study, there are different ways you could present the information, but remember to include the five parts for your case study.

Man holding his hand out to show five fingers.

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  • Published: 22 February 2024

Understanding implementation of findings from trial method research: a mixed methods study applying implementation frameworks and behaviour change models

  • Taylor Coffey   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6921-8230 1 ,
  • Paula R. Williamson 2 &
  • Katie Gillies 1

on behalf of the Trials Methodology Research Partnership Working Groups

Trials volume  25 , Article number:  139 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Trial method research produces recommendations on how to best conduct trials. However, findings are not routinely implemented into practice. To better understand why, we conducted a mixed method study on the challenges of implementing trial method research findings into UK-based clinical trial units.

Three stages of research were conducted. Firstly, case studies of completed projects that provided methodological recommendations were identified within trial design, conduct, analysis, and reporting. These case studies were used as survey examples to query obstacles and facilitators to implementing method research. Survey participants were experienced trial staff, identified via email invitations to UK clinical trial units. This survey assessed the case studies’ rates of implementation, and demographic characteristics of trial units through the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research. Further, interviews were conducted with senior members of trial units to explore obstacles and facilitators in more detail. Participants were sampled from trial units that indicated their willingness to participate in interviews following the survey. Interviews, and analysis, were structured via the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation Model of Behaviour. Finally, potential strategies to leverage lessons learned were generated via the Behaviour Change Wheel.

A total of 27 UK trial units responded to the survey. The rates of implementation across the case studies varied, with most trial units implementing recommendations in trial conduct and only few implementing recommendations in reporting. However, most reported implementing recommendations was important but that they lacked the resources to do so. A total of 16 senior members of trial units were interviewed. Several themes were generated from interviews and fell broadly into categories related to the methods recommendations themselves, the trial units, or external factors affecting implementation. Belief statements within themes indicated resources issues and awareness of recommendations as frequent implementation obstacles. Participation in trial networks and recommendations packaged with relevant resources were cited frequently as implementation facilitators. These obstacles and facilitators mirrored results from the survey. Results were mapped, via the Behaviour Change Wheel, to intervention functions likely to change behaviours of obstacles and facilitators identified. These intervention functions were developed into potential solutions to reduce obstacles and enhance facilitators to implementation.

Conclusions

Several key areas affecting implementation of trial method recommendations were identified. Potential methods to enhance facilitators and reduce obstacles are suggested. Future research is needed to refine these methods and assess their feasibility and acceptability.

Peer Review reports

Clinical trials provide evidence to support decisions about practice in many aspects of healthcare. As well as generating evidence to inform decision making, trials need to, themselves, be informed by evidence in how they are designed, conducted, analysed, and reported to ensure they produce the highest quality outputs [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. This is essential to guarantee not only that trials contribute to evidence-based practice, but that all phases of the trial ‘lifecycle’ also support efforts to minimise research waste by building on best practice for how to design, conduct, analyse, and report trials [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 ].

Research into how best to design, conduct, analyse, and report clinical trials, known as trial method research [ 1 , 3 ], has expanded in recent years. For example, a widely studied aspect of trial conduct is recruitment. One project, the Online Resource for Research in Clinical triAls (ORRCA), is an ongoing effort to scope methodological work in recruitment. In their initial publication, the ORRCA team identified 2804 articles, published up to 2015, regarding recruitment [ 6 ]. Their most recent update in February 2023 found 4813 eligible papers, an increase of 70% in less than 5 years from the initial publication [ 6 , 7 ]. As this is just one area of trial methodology, it represents only a fraction of the work being done in this space. With such a large volume of research being generated, coordinated efforts are needed to ensure that learning is shared across research groups to prevent duplication of effort and promote collaboration. There is recognition across the trial method research community that there is significant variability in terms of whether and how the findings from this methodological research influence ‘practice’ with regard to trial design, conduct, analysis, or reporting [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. Similar to clinical practice, where evidence can fail to be implemented [ 10 , 11 ], it is critical that the challenges and opportunities to implementing trial method research findings into practice are understood. This understanding will then maximise the potential for this research to improve health by improving the trials themselves.

Barriers to implementation are known to be complex and involve multifactorial influences [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Whilst this is established for clinical evidence [ 15 ], it is also likely to be the case for methodological evidence—yet the specific challenges may be different. Implementation science (and in particular the use of behavioural approaches which are theory-informed) provides a rigorous method for identifying, diagnosing, and developing solutions to target factors with the potential to enhance or impede behaviour change and subsequent integration of those changes [ 2 , 10 , 14 , 16 ]. Data generated using these theoretical approaches are likely more reproducible and generalisable than alternatives [ 2 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. The potential for lessons from behavioural science to investigate who needs to do what differently, to whom, when, and where, within the context of clinical trials is receiving attention across various stages of the trial lifecycle [ 2 ]. The overall aim of this study was to generate evidence for the challenges and opportunities trialists experience with regard to implementing the results from trial method projects that target the design, conduct, analysis, or reporting of trials.

Overall study description

We designed a sequential exploratory mixed methods study with three linked components:

Case studies : which identified existing examples of trial method research projects with actionable outputs that were believed to influence trial design, conduct, analysis, or reporting practice. “Actionable outputs” were defined broadly as any resource, generated from these projects, that has led to an actual or potential change in the design, conduct, analysis, or reporting of trials.

Survey : which identified the broad range, and frequency, of challenges and opportunities to the implementation of trial method research. Participants were trialists from across the UK, specifically the Clinical Research Collaboration (UKCRC) Network of Registered Clinical Trials Units (CTUs). The UKCRC was established to “help improve the quality and quantity of available expertise to carry out UK clinical trials.” ( https://www.ukcrc.org/research-infrastructure/clinical-trials-units/registered-clinical-trials-units/ ).

Interviews : which explored in depth the challenges and opportunities for implementing trial method research from case study examples and general experience in CTU management.

Theoretical considerations and rationale

It is important when selecting theoretical frameworks, and even more so when combining them within one study, to provide an explicit rationale for the choice of framework(s) [ 14 ]. This study utilised a combined theoretical approach, with the Consolidated Framework of Implementation Research (CFIR) [ 13 ] guiding the survey development, and the Capability, Motivation, and Opportunity Model of Behaviour (COM-B) [ 18 ] guiding the interview guide and analysis. CFIR was designed to synthesise the key elements that underpin implementation efforts [ 13 ]. It was selected in this study to guide the survey design because it provided a systematic framework to structure our inquiry. The CFIR is comprehensive in its descriptions of constructs and how they affect implementation across different organisational levels [ 13 ]. As the survey was intended to focus more explicitly on the organisational structure of the CTUs, the CFIR possessed the context-specific language and concepts to describe and prioritise our initial findings. The COM-B, in contrast, is broader in its scope as a general theory of behaviour and behaviour change. As implementation efforts largely rely on the adoption and maintenance of new behaviours, or changes to existing ones, behaviour change theory is useful to describe the determinants of behaviour and how they relate to one another [ 18 ]. This latter point is particularly relevant for implementation efforts as they are likely to consist of multiple changed behaviours, across different contexts, within an organisation to deliver the ultimate objective of research findings [ 19 ]. The COM-B’s capacity to accommodate such complexity outside the prescribed constructs of the CFIR ensured that all relevant factors to implementation are considered [ 14 ]. The approaches are further complementary in their conception of the socio-ecological layers within CTUs in which implementation takes place. Again, the CFIR provides the context-specific labels to, and ability to prioritise, these layers, with the COM-B acting as a methodological “safety net” to further describe or categorise findings. And finally, the COM-B is linked to a method of intervention development (and policy functions), known as the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW). Through the BCW, nine potential categories of interventions are linked to the behavioural domains of the COM-B [ 18 ]. This link allows potential solutions to be identified based on the domains found to be most relevant or targetable for the behaviour intended to change.

Case studies

Participants.

Members of the Trials Methodology Research Partnership (TMRP) Working Groups ( https://www.methodologyhubs.mrc.ac.uk/about/tmrp/ ) were invited to contribute. Members of these working groups specialise in one or more areas of clinic trial methodology, and all have academic and/or professional interests in improving the quality of trials.

Data collection

An email was sent directly to members of the TMRP Working Group co-leads to solicit case studies of trial method implementation projects with actionable outputs. The email included a brief description of the project and aims of the case study selection, followed by two questions. The first question asked for any examples of trial method research that respondents were aware of. Question 2 asked respondents to provide what they believed were the “actionable outputs” (i.e. the resources generated that lead to implementation of findings) of those methods research projects. Examples of potential actionable outputs could include published papers, guidelines or checklists, template documents, or software packages.

Data analysis

Responses were collated and reviewed by the research team (TC, PW, KG) for their relevance to the four aspects of design, conduct, analysis, and reporting of trials. These responses were compared with a list of published outputs collected by the HTMR ( Network Hubs:: Guidance pack (mrc.ac.uk) ) to ensure a wide-reaching range of available trial method research. One case study was chosen for each domain of trial method research through team consensus, resulting in four case studies incorporated into the survey.

Directors (or individuals nominated by Directors) of the 52 UKCRC-registered CTUs were invited to participate via email from a central list server independent to the research team.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Participants were included if they had been involved in any aspect of trial design, delivery, analysis, or reporting within the network of UKCRC-registered CTUs. Any individuals identifying as not reading, writing, or speaking English sufficiently well to participate, or those unable to consent, were excluded.

The survey was designed, and data collected, via the online survey platform Snap (Version 11). A weblink was distributed to the 52 UK CRC-registered CTUs, along with a description of the study, and a Word document version of the survey (available in Additional file 1 : Appendix 1). CTU staff were instructed to distribute this Word version of the survey to members of staff and collate their responses. Collated responses were then entered into the survey at the provided weblink. The survey was designed utilising the Inner Domains of the CFIR [ 13 ] to broadly capture participant views on how trial method research informed the design, conduct, analysis, and reporting of trials run through their CTU. It assessed the perceived organizational structure of the CTU and how those demographics influence the adoption of trial method research. It also asked specific questions about each of the case studies selected from the previous phase. Responses consisted of a mixture of single-choice, Likert scales from 1 to 9 (1 being negative valence and 9 being positive valence), and free-text.

Examples of trial method research projects suggested by respondents (or research area, e.g., recruitment, if no specific project name was given) were collated and frequency counts for each generated. Frequency counts for the types of actionable outputs from these projects were also calculated. Likert scale responses (ranging from 1 to 9) were analysed through descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) to compare responses within and between CTUs, the unit of analysis. Some CFIR domains were assessed by more than one question, and so responses to those questions were averaged to give an overall score for the domain. Scores across all domains for a given site were averaged to give a “general implementation” score. The individual scores on measures of these constructs are presented below using a coloured heatmap to highlight areas of high (green) to low (red) activity and provide easy comparison across and within sites. Additional free-text data were analysed using a directed content analysis approach [ 20 ]. Terms and phrases that occurred frequently within this data were collated and then themes summarising barriers and opportunities were generated.

Survey responders indicated their willingness to be contacted for participation in an interview. Emails were sent directly to those who indicated interest in participating.

Recruitment and data collection

Interviews were conducted by a trained qualitative researcher (TC) and structured using a theory-informed topic guide. This topic guide (Additional file 2 : Appendix 2) was developed using the COM-B Model of Behaviour [ 18 ]. Questions prompted interview participants to consider the behavioural influences relevant to implementing findings from trial method research generally and from the selected case studies. Interviews were conducted and recorded through Microsoft Teams. Verbal consent to participate in interviews was obtained and recorded prior to interviews beginning. Recordings were transcribed verbatim by a third party (approved by the University of Aberdeen), de-identified, and checked for accuracy.

Data from interviews were imported into NVivo (V12, release 1.6.1) and analysed initially using a theory-based (COM-B) content analysis [ 20 ], which allowed data to be coded deductively informed by the domains of the COM-B. This involved highlighting utterances within the transcripts and assigning them to one of the six behavioural sub-domains: “psychological capability”, “physical capability”, “social opportunity”, “physical opportunity”, “reflective motivation”, or “automatic motivation”. The next phase of analysis was inductive, allowing identification of additional themes that may have been outside the COM-B domains but were still deemed relevant to the research question. One author (TC) completed coding independently for all interviews. A second author (KG) reviewed a 10% sample of interviews and coded them independently. Coding was then compared for agreement and any discrepancies resolved. Data were compared and coded through a process of constant comparison to provide a summary of key points that interview participants considered to be important. Interview data were specifically explored for any difficulties reported by trialists with regard to the challenges, opportunities, and potential strategies to facilitate the implementation of findings. These data were collected under “belief statements”, which collected similar statements made across participants under a descriptive heading informed by the statements’ COM-B domain. For instance, similar statements on the availability of resources could be collected under a belief statement, “We do not have enough resources”, representing a barrier within the COM-B domain of “physical opportunity”. Belief statements were then analysed for themes across COM-B domains. These themes were developed as narrative summaries of recurrent experiences, barriers, and facilitators to implementation of methods findings. Themes are presented below with their component COM-B domains indicated within the theme’s title. This thematic framework was reviewed, refined, and agreed by consensus of the research team.

Identifying potential solutions

Relevant COM-B domains identified during the interviews and agreed by group consensus were mapped to behavioural intervention functions. Mapping of intervention functions was based on instructions within a behavioural intervention guideline known as the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) [ 18 ]. The BCW describes the intervention functions that are believed to influence the individual domains of the COM-B. For example, a lack of psychological capability could be targeted with the intervention function “Education”, which is defined as “increasing knowledge or understanding” [ 18 ]. More than one intervention function is available for each COM-B domain and domains often share one or more intervention functions in common. Utilising the definitions and examples of intervention functions applied to interventions, the research team generated potential solutions based on the available intervention functions targeting the relevant COM-B domains. These solutions were additionally based on the research team’s impressions of targetable belief statements within relevant COM-B domains. For example, if a lack of knowledge was identified (and thus psychological capability) a blanket educational intervention would not necessarily be fit for purpose if only a particular group within an organisation lacked that knowledge whilst others did not. The potential solutions were refined through application of the Affordability, Practicability, Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, Acceptability, Side-effects and safety, Equity (APEASE) criteria. Application of these criteria to the selection of intervention functions is recommended by the BCW so that research teams can reflect on factors that may limit the relevance and suitability of potential solutions to stakeholders [ 18 ].

Six of 16 Working Group co-leads responded with potential case studies for inclusion. Participants identified a number of trial method research projects, and the project’s outputs, via free-text response to the email prompts. A total of 13 distinct projects were reported by the respondents, primarily in the areas of trial design and analysis, with a particular emphasis on statistical and data collection methods. As a result, case studies for methods research targeting the other two areas of a trial lifecycle, conduct, and reporting, were selected from the list collated by the research team. The four case studies [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ] were selected to consider the variability of project focus across the four areas of trial method research. The selected case studies are described below in Table  1 .

Site demographics

A total of 27 UK CTUs (Table  2 ) responded to the survey, just over half of all UK CRC-registered CTUs ( N  = 52). CTUs were primarily in operation from 10 to 20 years (55%) or more than 20 years (30%). The size of CTUs, by staff number, were divided fairly equally between the small (< 50), medium (50–100), and large (100 +) categories. Most sites characterised themselves as moderately ( n  = 12) to highly stable ( n  = 12) in regard to staff turnover.

Inner domains of the CFIR: culture, implementation climate, networks, and communication

Alongside the structural demographic characteristics described above, we assessed other constructs within the CFIR’s Inner domains. The individual scores on our measures of these constructs are presented in Table  3 below using a coloured heatmap to highlight areas of high to low activity and provide easy comparison across and within sites. Most sites ( n  = 24) achieved general implementation scores between 5 and 7. Typically, scores were reduced due to low ratings for available resources (i.e. money, training, time) within the CTU. Time possessed the lowest individual score, with an average of 3.2 (SD = 1.9). The individual item with the highest average score, 8.2 (SD = 1.3), asked whether relevant findings were believed to be important for the CTU to implement. Finally, available training/education resources were the item with the highest variability across sites, with a standard deviation of 2.2.

Implementation of example case studies

The two case studies that were the most widely implemented were the DAMOCLES charter and the guidelines for statistical analysis plans. Both case studies were implemented fully by a majority of sites ( n  = 21) with a further minority implementing them at least partially ( n  = 5). The recommendations for internal pilots was fully implemented in some sites ( n  = 8), partially in others ( n  = 9), but was not implemented at all in still others ( n  = 10). The RECAP guidance was not implemented at all in 20 sites, partially in five, and fully in two.

Survey participants reported several key obstacles and facilitators to implementation of the case studies. These factors are summarised, along with the degree of implementation of each case study across the CTUs, in Table  4 below. Two of the most frequently cited factors to enhance or hinder implementation related to the dissemination of findings. The first concerned how findings were packaged for dissemination, with survey respondents noting the utility of templates and write-ups of examples. The second related to the communication of new findings. Respondents mentioned professional networks and conferences as useful in keeping CTU staff up to date on relevant methods research. Workshops, presentations, and other events within those networks also provided these same opportunities with the additional benefit of being tailored to translating findings into practice. A frequently mentioned barrier described potentially inadequate dissemination efforts, as participants cited a lack of capacity to “ horizon scan ” for new findings. Time and funding constraints were described as leading to this lack of capacity. Finally within communication, participants reported that if a member of their CTU had been involved in methods research, it was more likely to be implemented.

Participant characteristics

Sixteen individuals (Table  5 ) participated in interviews, representing CTUs from across the UK. Participants were primarily directors or other senior members of their respective CTUs. Half of respondents ( n  = 8) had been in these roles for less than 5 years, with a further seven being in their roles from 5 to 10 years. Most ( n  = 11) had been working in trials generally for 20–29 years.

Interview findings

Interviews were conducted remotely and typically lasted 30–45 min. Belief statements were generated under the domains of the COM-B. Those domains were psychological capability, reflective motivation, automatic motivation, physical opportunity, and social opportunity. Cross-domain themes were generated from related belief statements to summarise overall content. Seven themes were identified: “The influence of funders”, “The visibility of findings”, “The relevance and feasibility of findings”, “Perceived value of implementation research”, “Interpersonal communication”, “Existing work commitments”, and “Cultural drivers of implementation”. Themes are presented in detail below with the relevant COM-B domains to which they are linked presented in parentheses. The themes are further organised into the socio-ecological levels for which they are most relevant, i.e. at the level of the CTU (Internal), outside the CTU (External), or to do with the findings themselves (Findings).

External factors

Theme 1—The influence of funders (social/physical opportunity and reflective motivation).

Interview participants spoke of the influence of funders as important to what trial method research findings are implemented. These influences were comprised of both the resource implication of funding allocation (physical opportunity) as well as the cultural influence that funders possess (social opportunity). With regard to resource implications, there were restrictions on what implementation-related activities trial staff could perform based on the lack of protected time within their roles that could be allocated to implementation (physical opportunity). Secondly, limitations on time were superseded by requirements set out by funders on which trial method research findings needed to be implemented within their trials. If particular findings were deemed necessary by bodies like the NIHR, CTU staff had no choice but to find time to implement them (reflective motivation). Related to these beliefs was the idea that clear efforts at implementing relevant trial method research findings could signal to funders that the CTU team possessed the skills required to conduct trials, thereby increasing the opportunities for funding through a sort of “competitive edge” (reflective motivation).

“I think the progression criteria, as I said, I think is being driven more by the funders expectations rather than anything else, and then other people go, “Well, if the funder expects to see it, I just have to do it,” so then... they might grumble, basically, but if you’re going to put your grant application in, and you want it to be competitive, this is what we have to do.” – Site 7, director

Theme 2—The visibility of findings (social/physical opportunity and psychological capability).

One of the main barriers cited by interviewees was simply knowing about trial method research findings. Participants described the limits on their own time and capacity in “horizon scanning” for new publications and resources, which was often compounded by the sheer volume of outputs (psychological capability).

“I mean probably the greatest competing demand is being up to speed on what’s coming out that’s new. That’s probably where I would feel that… yes, trying to… I know everyone feels like they don’t have enough time to just read and be aware of the stuff coming out, so that’s… I’m more anxious, and I know others are, that there’s stuff being done that we don’t even know about to try and implement, so in some ways we might almost be repeating the wheel of trying to improve best practice in a topic area, and actually someone’s done loads of work on it.” – Site 3, director.

However, interviewees highlighted several resources as means to close this knowledge gap. Dedicated channels for dissemination of important trial method research findings were one means to stay on top of emerging literature. These could be newsletters, websites, or meetings where part, or all, of the agenda was set aside for updates on findings (physical opportunity). Other resources mentioned included more social opportunities to hear about the latest research, at conferences like the International Clinical Trials Methodology Conference (ICTMC) or network events like training and workshops. These events were also cited as important venues to share lessons learned in implementing trial method research findings or to air general frustrations on the complexities of trial conduct and management (social opportunity). Finally, these networking opportunities were identified by interviewees as potent incubators for collaborations, inspiring new trial method projects or establishing links to assess existing ones. Interviewees reported that the opportunity to be involved in these methods projects worked to also raise awareness of their outputs as well as increasing the perceived relevance of these outputs to CTU staff (psychological capability).

“Again, I think I was very aware of [statistical analysis plans] in my previous role as well, so I’d been along to some of the stats group meetings that the CTU networks have run where this had been discussed before it was published. I think they certainly involved a lot of the CTUs in developing that as well and in canvassing comments that went into the paper. I think potentially that would have been easier for people to implement because we’d had some involvement in the developmental bit as well as it went along.” – Site 22, academic

Internal factors

Theme 3—Interpersonal communication (psychological capability, social/physical opportunity, and automatic motivation).

As our participants were senior members of their respective CTUs, they often described aspects of their role and how their efforts mesh with the overall culture of the CTU. A recurrent feature reported by interviewees relating to their role was to be the central figure in communicating the importance of implementation convincingly to their staff and trial sites. This meant they had to advocate for the relevance of trial method research findings to their CTU staff and motivate staff on changing their processes to align with the findings (reflective motivation). This aspect of communication could be more challenging with chief investigators if they were not convinced of the utility of implementation within their own trials, particularly if they anticipated opportunity or resource cost to hosting the research itself or the process changes of implementing findings (social/physical opportunity). Regardless of where it originated, such resistance to change could be frustrating and draining to senior members that were attempting to spearhead implementation efforts (automatic motivation).

“R – Was it ever stressful or frustrating to implement certain things? P – Yes, I would say it can definitely be. I would be lying if I said no. Because change is always.. there’s always a resistance to change in every institution, so it’s not easy to change things. Yes, it can be frustrating, and it can be painful. Things that help are probably when it’s a requirement and when it’s... whatever you do it goes into your SOPs, and then you say, ‘This is how I have to do it, so this is how we will do it.’ But getting to the step of the institution to recognise it, and the people you’re working with, it can be frustrating because there could be arguments like are hard to argue back like, ‘We don’t have the resources, we don’t have the time. Now is not the moment, we’re...’ so there’s all of these things, but also there’s the effort that it takes to convince people that it’s worthwhile doing the change. It’s definitely... it can be frustrating and disappointing, and it takes a lot of energy.” – Site 21, group lead

However, some broader cultural aspects of the CTU appeared to reduce such frustrations. Participants described that their CTU members were often open to new ideas and that such receptivity facilitated implementation (social opportunity). This openness to change was leveraged through the communication skills of senior staff that were previously mentioned and their ability to solicit opinions and feedback from their staff (psychological capability). Such discussions often took place at internal trainings or meetings that incorporated some focus on implementation efforts for the CTU staff (physical opportunity). These opportunities not only afforded discourse on the practicalities of implementation but also helped to raise general awareness of trial method research findings as well as potential adaptations of findings to better suit the individual requirements of the CTU.

“Yes, I mean at our Trials Unit, I run our monthly trial methodology meetings, so these are predominantly attended by statisticians, so we do focus more on trial methodology that’s more statistical in flavour, but we do always cover the new updates and any key publications we’ve seen. I find that’s a great format for getting people interested and excited in these new methods and distilling them down. Generally, across the unit, we have wider… they’re like two forums, just where everyone gets together, and we tend to have bitesize sessions there where we can distil something. Actually, they’re quite useful because internally, we can distil something new to people but in a bitesize chunk so that people are aware and then can take it further and develop specific… if it’s something quite big, then we can develop working groups to look into it and come to a more solid plan of how we can actually implement it if it seems useful.” – Site 25, academic

Theme 4—Existing work commitments (physical opportunity).

Whilst openness to implementation at the CTU, driven by leadership advocating for its importance, was often present in the interviews, resource restrictions were still an ever-present factor impacting the opportunities for CTU staff to improve practice. Interviewees reported that because any change to be implemented required time and effort to action, mentions of these opportunity costs were reflected universally across our sample. The CTU staff, according to their directive, must prioritise the design of new trials and the delivery of ongoing trials.

“But you know, it’s real, it’s a real challenge and intention to be able to keep your eye on the ball and the many different competing priorities that there are. It does sound like a bit of a weak excuse when you say it out loud. So, our focus is on doing the trials, but of course we should always be trying to have an eye on what is the evidence that it’s underpinning what we do in those trials. We should. But with the best will in the world, it’s writing applications, responding to board comments, getting contracts done once things are funded, getting trials underway. The focus is just constantly on that work of trying to win funding and delivering on what you said you were going to deliver, in amongst all the other business of running a CTU or recruiting staff, managing funding contracts, dealing with our institutions, our universities, our local trusts. All the efforts that go into getting trials underway in terms of writing documents and approvals and recruiting sites, you know?” – Site 10, director

Mitigating these resource restrictions often meant looking to other strategies (mentioned in the next theme) that might allow CTU staff to carve out some capacity towards implementation.

Theme 5—Cultural drivers of implementation (psychological capability, physical opportunity, reflective motivation).

As senior members of their respective CTUs, our participants displayed clear motivations to implement trial method research. They expressed that they would like to see the staff in the CTU improve both the uptake of trial method research findings, as well as generating their own method research. This was part of a larger desire to create a culture within their CTUs that encourages and supports research (reflective motivation).

“I hope that within the Trials Unit, I also create an environment where I’m trying to encourage people to not always work to capacity, so they do have the headroom to go away and explore things and to try things and to develop their own research ideas, so that we can say to people okay. Whether it’s looking at different patient information sheets, whether it’s looking at different recruitment strategies, whether it’s looking at different ways of doing data cleaning across sites, looking at different ways of delivering training to people for data entry because we’ve lots of different ways of delivering training and we still get a very high error rate. I’m sure there are other Trials Units that are doing the same thing, so we should be publishing and sharing that with Trials Units. I’m trying to create that environment.” – Site 1, director

Some potential avenues to promote that development were offered by participants. Firstly, participants were confident in their team’s expertise and ability to either generate or implement trial method research findings. This was evidenced through ongoing work being done within their CTU or discussions with their staff on areas they would like to dedicate time to (psychological capability). An important role for the senior members of staff is then to set out expectations for their teams around how they can leverage their expertise within implementing or generating trial method research findings and for senior members to offer the necessary support for that to happen. One option put forward to facilitate this leveraging of expertise was to provide career development opportunities centred on implementation. This could simply be allocating staff’s time to focus on implementation projects, protecting their time from usual work commitments. A further development opportunity would be appointing so-called “ champions ” within the CTU whose explicit role is to identify trial method research findings and coordinate their implementation (physical opportunity).

“Because sometimes what I think is [...] you need a champion, you need every CTU to implement these things and because every trial or every trials unit is composed of different people, so I would probably champion the SAPs part because I’m the statistician, and I make sure that that goes ahead, but someone else needs to champion the one on the patients, probably. Not necessarily. I would champion for all of these things, but because... I think it's finding these people that are the ones that see the value and then be the drivers of the unit. I think that will probably help. […] But I honestly think the best way is just reaching a champion for each of these areas and reaching out to them and saying, ‘Can you... what do you think of this, and what would you do to implement it in your own unit?’” – Site 21, group lead

Factors related to findings

Theme 6—Relevance and feasibility of findings (physical opportunity, reflective motivation, and psychological capability).

Not all findings from trial method research are applicable to all trials and there to all CTUs. For instance, some of our participants mentioned that the progression criteria recommendations were not widely implemented by their CTU staff because they did not often include internal pilots in their trials. So, once the challenges of knowing about trial method research findings are overcome, CTU staff then need to make decisions on what is most relevant to their trial portfolio and what they would like to prioritise implementing (reflective motivation). This prioritisation was dependent on two factors, the CTU staff’s ability to adapt findings to their needs and the implementation resources that findings are packaged with. These factors appeared to be interconnected as sufficient resources to aid implementation, such as training workshops, could reduce the burden of adaptation (physical opportunity). Conversely, staff that perceived their CTU as capable of adaptation could do so even when implementation resources were lacking, such as when trial method research findings are only shared via publication (psychological capability).

“I think that resources that are guidance types widely available, well-advertised, are probably the most... the easiest way. Everything that makes it easier for a person that has this little win of saying, ‘Oh, yes, we’ve probably considered doing things differently,’ anything that minimises that burden in a system I do. For example, with the SAPs, it’s not just the paper and the guidance, but it’s the templates and the little things that you say, ‘Oh, I can start from here, and then if I just use this and this, then the work is so much less […]’ It’s just that thinking of resources that at least create an easy start point for a person that is the right person. I think that would be the best strategy for me, and make them widely available and well-advertised and probably, I don’t know, distribute them, contact the CTUs and say, ‘By the way, here’s a nice resource that you can use if you want to improve this and that.’ I think anything like that could probably be the way I would go around improving the implementation and the uptake because I feel that the goodwill is there.” – Site 21, group lead

Theme 7—Perceived value of implementation (reflective motivation).

Following on from the idea that there is the “ goodwill ” to implement trial method research findings, it was unsurprising that our participants reported believing that implementation research is important. Many believed that uptake of findings had clear benefits to improving the practice of their CTU. Even for those findings of trial method research that were less enthusiastically received, this appeared to be because the CTU staff were already operating at a high standard and that trial method research findings served to simply reassure them of the quality of their practices.

“I guess yes, I would say so, they help enhance them. Thinking about the first one on progression criteria, we didn’t really have any standard in house guidance on that, so actually reaching out and using that was great because we needed something to base it on. Whereas I’d say for the others, with the Damocles ones and the one on SAP guidance, we did already have in house guidelines for SAPs and DMC charters, but these bits of work have helped to inform them. In a way, they help clarify that most of what you are doing is good practice and then some additional things that could be added in.” – Site 25, academic

Alongside the efficiency and quality benefits to the CTU and its practices, participants also described a desire to implement findings from trial method research because of their promise to improve the quality of trials, and the evidence they generate, more broadly. For example, this could be improved efficiency leading to cost-effective trials to free up funding for other research. It could also be participant-centred improvements that have both ethical implications as well as bolstering the public’s trust in the research process. And, most importantly it seemed, improvements across trials would lead to better evidence to base healthcare decisions on. Finally, implementation of findings from trial method research helps to signal that the CTU is dedicated to best practice and is innovative in pursuing those ideals. There was a perception that it can lead to increased reputation amongst peers and the public as well as making the applications from the CTU attractive to funders.

“I think they maybe come under some of the reasons that you said already, but they are incentives to do [implementing trials methods research findings] because we’re all in the business of trying to produce evidence for interventions that are going to make a difference usually in the NHS, not always, but depending what it is that we’re trialling. But ultimately, you know, we’re all in the business of trying to produce evidence that’s going to get used and make a difference to the patients, and if that can happen more quickly, cheaply, more efficiently, trials that are run better with an evidence base underpinning what happens in the trials, then yeah, that’s why we should be doing it. That’s all incentives to do it.” – Site 10, director

As stated above in “Interview findings”, the COM-B domains identified were psychological capability, reflective motivation, automatic motivation, physical opportunity, and social opportunity. These five domains map to all nine intervention functions within the BCW. Two, “Restriction” and “Coercion”, were eliminated due to limited practicability and acceptability. Potential solutions were generated that targeted specific aspects of beliefs within our themes. The primary factors identified across themes were distilled into three intervention targets. Those targets were as follows: awareness of trial method research findings, the effort required to implement findings, and the culture around implementing findings. Eight potential interventions were generated which are listed in Table  6 .

Awareness of trial method research findings

The first proposed intervention is the incorporation of sessions specific to sharing research findings into the agendas of clinical and methodology conferences. These sessions would serve as a dedicated conduit for trialists to share and receive new methods research findings, giving dedicated time and space to do so. The social elements of these sessions would also benefit implementation through less formal opportunities to share feedback and other comments on recommendations that can then be addressed by the associated researchers present.

Effort required to implement findings

The second proposed intervention would target the effort required to implement findings. As time is at a premium within CTUs, any pre-emptive efforts on the part of the methods research teams to ensure their recommendations are accessible, translatable, and clearly relevant to CTU staff will assist in those recommendations being implemented. This could include template documents, case studies of implementation, software packages, etc. Any resource beyond the publication of results would seem desirable to CTU staff to assist in their efforts at implementation.

Changes to culture

The third potential solution identified would target the cultural changes needed to re-prioritise the directions of CTUs towards implementation of findings. This would proceed mainly through a change in funder attitudes towards the importance of trial method research. Funders would need to provide dedicated funding/time within CTU’s contracts and/or trial grants to allow for the proper conduct and/or implementation of trial method research.

Other potential solutions

As many of our reported barriers are interconnected, so too do several of our proposed solutions target multiple barriers/opportunities to improve implementation. Many of these rely primarily on cultural shifts within the CTUs themselves, where existing structures are modified to accommodate implementation efforts. For example, ensuring that CTU meeting agendas incorporate dedicated time towards discussing implementation efforts or for roles to be established/re-structured that focus on championing these efforts.

This paper presents findings from our mixed methods study on the challenges and opportunities to implementing trial method research findings. Exploration of notable trial method research findings generated four cases studies that were used to solicit implementation experiences from trial staff through survey and interviews. The survey data allowed us to identify trends in the adoption of the case studies in a sample of half of the registered CTUs within the UK. Demographic data from participating CTUs demonstrated some similarities in implementation factors that are consistent across sites, such as a lack of resources. More positive similarities were identified as well, such as the shared belief that implementation research is important. Participants volunteered a number of motivators, such as adhering to best practice, or barriers, such as time/resource limitations, that affected their CTU’s implementation of these case studies and trial method research findings more generally. Our interviews with senior CTU staff further explored these motivators and barriers to implementation through a behavioural lens. A range of relevant themes across three socio-ecological levels (Findings, Internal, and External) were identified from our behavioural analysis.

Findings-level factors that affected implementation related to the quality and accessibility of the research and its outputs, and its perceived relevance to the trials undertaken in the CTUs. Trial method research findings that were ‘well-packaged’ (e.g., included templates or easy to follow guidance) were believed to assist in implementation. Findings that had clear benefits to the work done at a CTU, such as streamlining processes, or the outcomes of the trials themselves, such as improving their quality, were more readily implemented. Factors internal to the CTUs included the interpersonal communication of the staff, their existing workloads, and the culture surrounding implementation. Open communication between members of the CTU, spearheaded by senior staff, seemed to increase buy-in from staff on the relevance of trial method research findings. This buy-in would appear essential to motivate staff that are already stretched thin by their commitments to design and deliver trials. Efforts to improve cultural expectations around implementation were seen as a mechanism to create further opportunities for staff to dedicate to adopting findings. These efforts could be restructuring current staff roles or establishing new ones with a greater focus on implementation rather than strictly trial delivery. External factors affecting implementation of trial method research findings were primarily those linked with the expectations of funders and the availability of findings. Funders were said to drive both cultural expectations related to best practice, as well as creating capacity (or not) for CTU staff through provision of funds that could allow dedicated time for implementation efforts. The availability of findings had to do largely with the channels available for dissemination of findings. The more opportunities trialists had to be exposed to findings, the more likely they were to adopt those findings in their respective CTUs.

Strengths and limitations

Our project has several key strengths. The mixed methods nature of its design allowed for a more complete investigation of implementation factors than either quantitative or qualitative measures alone. The project utilised a combined theoretical approach, taking advantage of the CFIR in survey design and the COM-B in interview design and analysis. The combination of these approaches ensured that our project had the investigative potential to explore the specific implementation factors and general behavioural factors undermining the successful implementation of trial method research. Others have taken a similar epistemological approach in combining the CFIR and COM-B (and the related Theoretical Domains Framework) to investigate challenges in other contexts [ 14 , 25 , 26 , 27 ].

Our project solicited input from a variety of stakeholders in CTUs across the UK to ensure a diverse perspective on implementation challenges. However, our sample was primarily those with a statistics background, along with the number of responses to identify case studies being relatively low. We attempted to correct for this low response rate and homogeneity of response by agreeing as a team which case studies to include outside those offered by our respondents. However, we cannot say how selection of other case studies may have affected our responses to the surveys and interviews. It may be that particular projects had inherently different challenges to implementation that are not represented here. However, by including general organisational-level factors that may influence implementation, we have identified factors that are likely to be generalisable to a range of implementation efforts. A further bias is one of self-selection. It is possible that the CTUs and members that responded to our invitations are more active in implementing trial method research findings and would thus be more interested in participating in the project. It may also be that those CTUs that face the most challenges did not have the capacity or motivation to respond to our invitation due to the time it would take away from trial delivery. This may help to explain our response rate of about half of the 52 registered CTUs. Responses could have also been limited in our surveys as we asked CTUs to collate their answers. This may have led to unintended desirability effects, with some staff feeling unable to offer honest opinions on their CTU.

Recommendations for future

This project has identified a number of areas for future efforts in improving the implementation of trial method research findings. The themes described here can provide a starting point for trial method researchers to consider when implementing and/or disseminate findings from method research. This could include creating plans for how the findings will reach the appropriate CTU teams, how to articulate the importance of findings to those teams, or how to best package those findings to make them more readily accessible, and thus implementable, for the CTU teams. Further, it could prompt methods researchers to consider who should be involved in their research and when, potentially incorporating members from different institutions and organisations who would be required to implement any findings and doing so earlier in the process.

Where these obstacles still exist, future research on the implementation of findings can bridge the gap between research and practice. Our approach describes obstacles and facilitators in a standardised language common to behavioural and implementation science. Along with this clearer articulation of what works, for whom, how, why, and when, links to behavioural theory provides a process to design interventions [ 18 , 28 ]. Although we have identified some preliminary intervention options, future work could produce potential options not accounted for here, but utilising lessons learned from our findings. Further development of these strategies through selection of BCTs targeting one or more of the identified areas for improvement, refined through co-production with stakeholders, would be the next stage of the intervention design process [ 18 , 29 ]. Finally, assessment of the effectiveness of these interventions in improving the implementation of trial method research findings would be warranted. Additionally, as our project was sampled from UK CTUs, further work could explore the generalisability of these findings to settings outside the UK, particularly where trial units are noticeably different in their organisation.

We have presented findings exploring the obstacles and facilitators to the implementation of trial method research findings. Challenges facing CTUs at multiple levels, including demands on time and resources, internal organisational structure, and quality of findings, greatly affect their staff’s ability to incorporate findings into their workflow. We have suggested several potential areas to target with further intervention development based on behavioural theory to maximise the potential for change. These strategies, and others, would need to face refinement and the scrutiny of stakeholders, as well as evaluation of their effectiveness. Ultimately, our project highlights the motivation of trial staff to deliver quality trials underpinned by the latest evidence. However, this motivation is hindered by the realities of ongoing trial logistics and the difficulties faced in identifying this evidence. Trial methodologists will need to work closely with CTU staff, funders, and regulatory bodies to set priorities on what needs to be implemented and how to make that more achievable in light of the challenges faced.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset supporting the conclusions of this article is included within the article (and its additional files). Additional data is available upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Affordability, Practicability, Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, Acceptability, Side-effects and safety, Equity

Behaviour change technique

Behaviour change wheel

Consolidated Framework of Implementation Research

Capability, Motivation, and Opportunity Model of Behaviour

Clinical trial unit

DAta MOnitoring Committees: Lessons, Ethics, Statistics

Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research

Hubs for Trial Methodology Research

International Clinical Trials Methodology Conference

Medical Research Council

National Institute for Health and care Research

Online Resource for Research in Clinical triAls

REporting Clinical trial results Appropriately to Participants

Statistical analysis plans

Trials Methodology Research Partnership

UK Clinical Research Collaboration

Welcome to ORRCA. https://www.orrca.org.uk/ . 2023

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the members of the TMRP working groups that participated in the case study exercise. We would also like to thank all the participants within the survey and interviews.

This project was supported by the MRC – NIHR funded Trials Methodology Research Partnership (MR/S014357/1).

The Health Services Research Unit, Institute of Applied Health Sciences (University of Aberdeen), is core-funded by the Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health and Social Care Directorates. They were not involved in the design of the study or the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.

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Taylor Coffey & Katie Gillies

Department of Health Data Science, MRC-NIHR Trials Methodology Research Partnership, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England

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Contributions

TC contributed to the conceptualisation of the study and was responsible for the design and conduct of the case study selection, surveys, and interviews. TC also analysed all data and was the primary author of the manuscript. KG contributed to the conceptualisation of the study, data quality and analysis checks, along with contributing to drafting of the manuscript, providing edits and final approval. PW contributed to the conceptualisation of the study, edits and final approval of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Taylor Coffey .

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Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study was approved by the University of Aberdeen College Ethics Review Board (CERB) (Application No. SERB/2022/4/2340). Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

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Not applicable.

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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: appendix 1..

Survey with PIL. Word document version of the survey circulated to CTUs, which includes a PIL section.

Additional file 2: Appendix 2.

COM-B topic guide. Topic guide used during interviews.

Additional file 3:

Domain 1. Research team and reflexivity.

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Using design thinking for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching: a case study in higher education

  • Chia-Chi Wang 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  307 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study investigates the utilization of design thinking by a university instructor in the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum. It examines the challenges encountered and the coping strategies employed during the process. The research, conducted as a case study of an interdisciplinary program course at a university in southern Taiwan from September to December 2022, involved data collection through field observations, in-depth interviews, and document analysis. All data were transcribed verbatim, coded, and triangulated to enhance research validity. The findings suggest that design thinking serves as an effective methodology for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching. It emphasizes the integration of practice and application to facilitate students’ interdisciplinary collaboration and co-creation. Additionally, the study evaluates teaching strategies, with a focus on the role of visual tools, communication, and on-site observation. The insights gained from this research provide valuable perspectives on challenges in interdisciplinary teaching, particularly in a post-pandemic context. They guided the development of effective practices in Taiwan and beyond, addressing crucial aspects such as the roles of instructors, resource allocation, and the cultivation of interdisciplinary talent. The study emphasizes the continuous need for adaptation and the prioritization of depth in learning outcomes.

Introduction

Individuals and industries worldwide have encountered unprecedented challenges and changes in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is crucial for higher education to nurture future professionals capable of effectively addressing increasingly complex societal problems (Berasategi et al., 2020 ). With the proliferation of intricate global issues such as climate change, unemployment, healthcare, immigration, pollution, and safety (Hardy et al., 2021 ), interdisciplinary approaches have emerged as essential strategies. The surge in complex problems underscores the inevitability of interdisciplinary learning. Higher education, in response to these challenges, strives to cultivate skills that transcend traditional boundaries, including interdisciplinary thinking (Spelt et al., 2009 ). Major universities in Taiwan have demonstrated their commitment to promoting interdisciplinary education through mechanisms such as interdisciplinary courses, micro-credit courses, and credit programs. Interdisciplinary education aims to develop students’ boundary-crossing skills, fostering problem-solving, communication, collaboration, critical thinking, entrepreneurship, and innovative practices. The implementation of interdisciplinary cooperation in teaching and learning becomes a key focus in cultivating future talent and enhancing students’ integrated abilities.

Interdisciplinary learning involves transcending the boundaries of a single specific subject or field and providing students with connections and interactions between different subject areas. This interconnectivity helps them to understand the limitations and frameworks of their knowledge or skills and to integrate the knowledge of two or more disciplines to produce a cognitive advancement in ways that would have been impossible or unlikely through single disciplinary means (Spelt et al., 2009 ). It cultivates their ability to integrate different knowledge systems in facing complex problems in their careers or society. Moreover, interdisciplinary curriculum teaching significantly impacts instructors and learners, as compared to single-field curriculum teaching (Chang and Lin, 2019 ; McLaughlin et al., 2022 ; Spelt et al., 2009 ). Through interdisciplinary dialog, instructors can learn from others’ experiences or identify their weaknesses, promoting professional growth, enhancing their teaching and curriculum planning abilities, and guiding students to think and cooperate to solve problems. Meanwhile, students have opportunities for multi-faceted exploration, using their knowledge and skills in their professional fields and collaborating with students from other fields. Interdisciplinary education influences students’ learning styles and thinking patterns as they are exposed to different areas of expertise (Chen et al., 2017 ). Despite these benefits, instructors and learners face challenges in interdisciplinary collaboration. For instructors, the challenge lies in seamlessly integrating the cognitive and ideational aspects of individuals from diverse fields within the classroom, aiming for effective communication (Tsai, 2014 ). For learners, the challenges lie in communication problems arising from the heterogeneity of members’ backgrounds, the ratio of team leaders to experts, how consensus is formed, and the ongoing conceptual analysis and evaluation conducted during the process (Tang and Lin, 2011 ).

Design thinking (DT) represents a 21st-century skill aimed at generating timely solutions to complex and practical problems (Tan, 2017 ). Therefore, in the post-epidemic era, as the trend to cultivate interdisciplinary talent increases, this case study investigates how a university instructor uses design thinking to design and teach a university interdisciplinary curriculum in the context of a university interdisciplinary program. Specifically, we explore the challenges encountered and coping strategies during the development of the interdisciplinary curriculum and teaching practice, and the professional growth and reflection resulting from the process. Our findings can serve as a reference to promote interdisciplinary education.

Literature review

Interdisciplinary teaching models.

The term “interdisciplinary” is widely used to encompass a variety of activities related to communication, interaction, and integration among all disciplines. The dismantling of disciplinary boundaries characterizes interdisciplinary learning, and it can provide students with opportunities to engage and interact with different fields of study. The main objective of this approach is to guide students to gain a deeper understanding of the constraints and frameworks of their knowledge or skills while developing their capacity to comprehend and integrate different knowledge systems (Guo, 2008 ; Spelt et al., 2009 ). Students participating in interdisciplinary programs tend to develop a more holistic perspective and solution-oriented strategies rather than solely gaining content-specific knowledge from a single discipline. Interdisciplinary learning is aimed at cultivating multiple essential professional competencies, to address emerging social and employment challenges (Chang and Lin, 2019 ; Ivanitskaya et al., 2002 ; Repko, 2008 ; Repko and Szostak, 2021 ).

Previously, two inquiry-based teaching approaches, problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL) were commonly used in interdisciplinary education (Majeski, 2005 ; Modo and Kinchin, 2011 ; Stentoft, 2017 ; Wróblewska and Okraszewska, 2020 ; Yang and Lin, 2015 ). These approaches differ in learning content, problem structure, and learning outcomes. For example, the PBL learning style is more divergent, guiding learners to form different sub-problems by setting out structurally ambiguous problems. On the other hand, PjBL is more convergent, forming sub-problems through perceiving different phenomena or exploring the impact of different variables (Yang et al., 2018 ).

More recently, interdisciplinary project-based learning (IPBL) has emerged. Like the approach businesses use to develop teams in multiple areas, IPBL provides sufficient training for teamwork and collaboration to students from different disciplines, preparing them to engage in complex technical, engineering, educational, and social projects. Students can promote their learning by contributing their strengths and resources (Carpenter et al., 2007 ; Johansen et al., 2009 ; Stozhko et al., 2015 ; Whitney, 2014 ). IPBL can help students develop creativity, overcome the barriers of disciplinary self-centeredness, facilitate the development of knowledge management processes, stimulate their interest and motivation in subject curricula, promote their participation in the learning process, and enhance their cognitive levels and satisfaction with learning outcomes (Biasutti and EL-Deghaidy, 2014 ; Yueh et al., 2015 ). Emphasizing teamwork and collaborative learning in interdisciplinary project teams can improve effective communication and problem-solving skills and prepare students for future community engagement and development in the real world. These benefits highlight the necessity, relevance, and importance of IPBL for interdisciplinary integration. Therefore, IPBL is considered an important model for cultivating relevant skills for students aiming to find their ideal professions (Hsu and Shiue, 2018 ).

However, these PBL learning modes have limitations in meeting students’ learning needs for engagement with increasingly broad and complex challenges. A new emerging interdisciplinary inquiry-based learning approach: design-based learning (DBL) was proposed (Yang et al., 2018 ). DBL was initially proposed by D. Nelson, and its concept is deeply influenced by J. Dewey’s philosophy, emphasizing learning through practical operation and action. It incorporates design concepts such as prototypes into the curriculum, innovating teaching methods to provide students with an integrated learning experience (Nelson, 2004 ). It combines “design thinking” and “design practice”, allowing students to explore and solve real-life problems through reflective learning processes and hands-on doing (Mehalik and Schunn, 2006 ). Design thinking (DT) is an iterative, human-centered approach to solving complex problems that have gained considerate popularity in business, education, medicine, etc. (Dukala et al., 2023 ; Li and Zhan, 2022 ; McLaughlin et al., 2022 ; Skywark et al., 2022 ). DT is frequently defined as the application of a designer’s sensitivity and techniques to align the requirements of individuals with what is technologically possible and what a feasible business strategy can transform into customer value and market opportunity (Brown, 2008 , p. 2). In the practical tasks of DBL, students are required to construct tangible artifacts, fostering higher-order thinking abilities and demonstrating creative, design, and decision-making thinking (Chen and Yang, 2020 ). Compared to PBL and PjBL, DBL places a greater emphasis on humanism, particularly focusing on the human-based problem-solving process, prototype testing, and iterative refinement stages (Wang, 2023 ; Yang et al., 2018 ). Therefore, using DBL as the core of interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching is expected to be a concrete, feasible, and essential pedagogical strategy in the future.

Challenges and strategies in implementing interdisciplinary curriculum

Some interdisciplinary research has shown that implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum impacts instructors and learners significantly (Chang and Lin, 2019 ; McLaughlin et al., 2022 ; Spelt et al., 2009 ). For instructors, interdisciplinary dialog enables them to learn from others and identify their weaker areas, leading to professional growth and the ability to integrate knowledge from multiple fields. These benefits enhance their teaching and curriculum planning abilities and contribute to guiding students in their thinking and collaboration with a view to solving problems. Several aspects need to be considered when developing an interdisciplinary curriculum, including assessing the appropriateness of the course content, balancing different fields, encouraging creativity, collaborating with external partners, and addressing real-world problems and social trends. When designing interdisciplinary project courses, instructors should focus on how to teach the required hard skills for the topic, and as students begin to communicate with others, their need for soft skills becomes apparent. If instructors do not provide sufficient support, communication issues may hinder the development of hard skills. There is no need to distinguish between cultivating soft and hard skills during the learning process, as they are mutually beneficial.

However, without instructors providing scaffolding for these interactive processes, students may not automatically develop soft or hard skills in interdisciplinary project courses. Therefore, instructors engaging in interdisciplinary teaching must carefully consider how to offer guidance and scaffolding to students aiming to develop both hard and soft skills (Vogler et al., 2018 ). For learners, interdisciplinary learning provides opportunities for exploration from multiple perspectives, utilizing knowledge and skills from their field and collaborating with students from other fields. Interdisciplinary approaches prioritize the development of higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, application, generalization, and forming meaningful connections between different disciplines. Although these approaches may be less effective than traditional methods in building in-depth knowledge of a single subject, they offer unique benefits that cannot be achieved through a single-subject focus (Ivanitskaya et al., 2002 ). Students who have received interdisciplinary education training, influenced by diverse ways of thinking in different fields, will have more diverse learning styles and thinking patterns (Chen et al., 2017 ).

In addition, implementing an interdisciplinary curriculum poses significant challenges. Instructors in higher education institutions often lack training in interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary education, viewing interdisciplinary project activities as intimidating, especially when they cut across different classes and disciplines (Vogler et al., 2018 ). Bridging cognitive and ideational gaps for effective communication among students from diverse fields in the classroom proves challenging (Tsai, 2014 ). Furthermore, successful interdisciplinary teaching requires close collaboration among scholars from different fields, and language and terminological differences between these fields commonly serve as barriers (Repko, 2008 ; Repko and Szostak, 2021 ). The skills involved in interdisciplinary learning are also challenging to teach or understand in the classroom (Katz and Martin, 1997 ). Therefore, instructors must design experiential activities to help students acquire relevant skills through hands-on learning. Learners may face time constraints due to their academic workload, semester schedules, financial support, or the necessity of taking on additional jobs, which can limit their ability to participate in and benefit from teaching activities (Ryser et al., 2009 ). Team collaboration may lead to communication problems arising from the heterogeneous backgrounds of members, the ratio of team leaders to team members, the formation of consensus and conceptual analysis during the process, and the evaluation of the project (Tang and Lin, 2011 ).

Based on the above, this case study delves into the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum within a university setting. It investigates the various instructional challenges encountered and strategies employed to nurture professional development and reflection, particularly in the unique circumstances of a university interdisciplinary curriculum post-pandemic. The insights derived from this study are intended to provide valuable guidance for the advancement of interdisciplinary education practices in Taiwan and beyond.

Participants

Research field and participants.

This case study focuses on an interdisciplinary-related course offered by an interdisciplinary program at a university in southern Taiwan. The study has received ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee, Taiwan, confirming its adherence to ethical guidelines. The participants included one instructor, one teaching assistant, and 38 students enrolled in the course. In the interests of research ethics, they were asked to fill in the research informed-consent form voluntarily and also to freely decide whether to agree to include the previously collected data in the final research analysis to protect their rights and interests. The case instructor’s areas of expertise include cultural anthropology, material culture, globalization and localization, design and applied anthropology, and design thinking. The case instructor has taught this course for five semesters.

This course aims to cultivate students’ comprehensive abilities to apply design thinking across interdisciplinary domains. This includes solving real-world problems, enhancing communication skills, developing divergent and convergent thinking, understanding various stages of the design thinking process, strengthening empathy, conducting on-site observations, translating insights into practical designs, and acquiring practical skills for production, modification, and presentation of end products. The course has three main learning objectives: design thinking fundamentals, maker skills, and mid- and final-term projects. In the mid-term project, students must use the design thinking techniques learned in class to design games for children. For the final project, students must design creative playground equipment for the community and organize a two-day community play equipment exhibition. This course is a transdisciplinary curriculum primarily focusing on real-world scenarios, such as designing creative play equipment for children.

This study focuses on the dynamic process of designing and implementing interdisciplinary courses and emphasizes the use of design thinking methodology. We conducted classroom observations and interviews and collected documents throughout a semester to analyze and synthesize the data exploring various aspects of interdisciplinary course design and implementation. The research team conducted weekly classroom observations from September to December 2022. The research team interviewed the case instructor three times, and the case instructor recommended one student from each group for an interview. Interview locations were chosen for their quiet and comfortable environment and suitability for recording and note-taking. Open-ended interviews were conducted using semi-structured questions. Table 1 lists the case instructor and student information.

The research team

The research team consisted of a university faculty member, R1 (researcher), who teaches in a department related to education, and a master’s student, R2 (collaborative observer and interviewer), who works in a department related to education. R1 and R2 conducted classroom observations together, and R1 served as the primary interviewer during the interviews, with R2 conducting the collaborative interviews. The team conducted a member check meeting to analyze the data. R1 has 3 years of experience in interdisciplinary course design and teaching (since 2019) and has published two research papers on interdisciplinary course teaching.

The researcher distributed informed consent forms to the case instructor and students and proceeded with data collection only after obtaining their agreement. The data collection process was anonymous, and participants were informed that the collected data would only be used for academic research. The paper-based data would be placed in a locked cabinet, and a password would protect the electronic files to protect the participants’ privacy. The case instructors and students were also free to include previously collected data in the research analysis.

Instruments

Participant observation data.

Before starting the academic term, the researcher consulted with the case instructor to understand the curriculum, teaching context, student characteristics, observation focus and tools, and feedback session arrangements. During the teaching process, the researcher obtained written consent from the case instructor and students before conducting classroom observations and recording factual data about the case instructor’s teaching and student behavior. After the teaching period ended, the researcher held feedback sessions with the case instructor to clarify the ideas and achieve a consensus. The observed data were derived from two sources: (1) observation records and photos taken during class, and (2) non-specific observations, such as incidental behavior or conversations between the case instructor and students during data collection in the classroom.

Interview process and outline

Semi-structured interviews (Table 2 ) were the primary data collection method, and the entire interview process was recorded. The research team conducted interviews about the interdisciplinary course design and teaching experiences. The interviews with the case instructor focused on how to design and teach an interdisciplinary course, address teaching challenges, and professional growth and reflections during the process. The interviews with students focused on the impact of course design and teaching activities on their learning.

The interview content was transcribed verbatim and coded using NVivo 12 software to avoid disclosing the names of the research participants and other related privacy information. We used triangulation (Denzin, 1978 ) to enhance research validity (Maxwell, 1992 ). The data collection methods used to obtain the research data included interviews, observation records, and document data. “Data source triangulation” was adopted, inviting the case instructor, course students, and collaborative observers to participate in the study, to examine the data consistency. In addition, a recording pen was used to record data, to avoid missing or biased information. The researcher recorded interview and observation content in detail, carefully organized document data, and avoided over-inference to present the research’s validity.

Each research subject was given three codes: the first code represented their identity (R1: Researcher 1; TS: instructor S; SY: student Y); the second code represented the data type (I: Interview; O: Classroom observation and reflection); and the third code represented the date. For example, SW_I_20221228 indicates that student W was interviewed on December 28, 2022, and R1_O_20221006 indicates that Researcher 1 conducted classroom observation on October 6, 2022. During the data classification and formation of categories, the research team referred to the relevant literature and compiled primary categories. Sections of a similar nature and content were placed under the same relevant category. At the same time, member checks and peer reviews (Miles and Huberman, 1994 ) were conducted for the interview content. Analysis was stopped when the data began to show patterns and became increasingly stable.

Data analysis began in February 2023 and was divided into two stages. The first stage involved open coding, where the researcher conducted a preliminary analysis of three instructor interview transcripts, six student interview transcripts, nine researcher classroom observation records, and nine co-observer classroom observation records for 27 files. The first level of open coding generated 83 codes. In the second stage, based on the first level of coding, the researcher extracted the main codes through axial coding, resulting in 12 main codes. Examples of the codes are provided in Table 3 .

Results and discussion

Design and planning an interdisciplinary curriculum, using design thinking as a methodology for curriculum design.

Gaining insights into the pedagogical approaches and experiential aspects of design thinking in higher education enables educational institutions to enhance student learning, ensuring alignment with the demands of professionalism, personal development, and civic engagement (McLaughlin et al., 2022 ). The case instructor used the Stanford University D-School design thinking model to design and plan the interdisciplinary curriculum, consisting of five stages: “empathize”, “define”, “ideate”, “prototype”, and “test”. The “empathize” stage helped participants understand the importance of empathy and learn how to cultivate it. The “define” stage clarified the problem through common methods, such as summarizing the key points and establishing connections, making the design goals clearer. The “ideate” stage taught participants ideation techniques to transform problems into solutions. The “prototype” stage proposed ideas closer to the final solution and the creation of prototypes to obtain user feedback. Finally, during the “test” stage, participants were encouraged to implement their prototypes, assess their effectiveness, and verify their solutions, gaining a deeper understanding of the importance of thorough testing (Henriksen et al., 2017 ; Wang and Sung, 2019 ).

The case instructor guided university students through three complete cycles of design thinking across three projects: the “Design Thinking Mini-Workshop,” the “Mid-term Project,” and the “Final Project.” During the first cycle, in the third week of the course, the case instructor-led students in designing a chair for their partners as part of the Design Thinking Mini-Workshop. This phase aimed to familiarize students with two design thinking techniques—divergent and convergent thinking, five steps—empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test, and three criteria—desirability, feasibility, and viability. In the second cycle, the case instructor directed students to use cardboard as the material for designing board games targeting elementary school children. The design thinking process was employed, and children were invited to test and play with the game prototypes. By the end of the course, each group leveraged observations from the game field, interviews with children, and feedback on their gaming experiences to design innovative wooden play equipment for children. This culmination of efforts served as the third cycle, wherein the groups collaborated with “Taiwan Parks & Playgrounds for Children by Children” to organize a two-day park play equipment exhibition in a southern Taiwan administrative district.

As part of the three design thinking cycles, the case instructor set different assignments to help students practice the two techniques, five steps, three criteria, and related design thinking tools (Fig. 1 ). These assignments included observing and documenting children’s toys, observing and documenting children’s game ideas, learning woodworking skills, explaining sketches for the final project, creating prototypes for the final project, designing a poster to introduce the project, and completing a nine-square personal business model.

figure 1

The correspondence chart of design thinking and interdisciplinary course tasks.

Balancing resources and real-world impact: challenges and strategies in extended interdisciplinary courses

The case instructor has a humanities and social sciences background and has taught this course five times since 2018. He is adept at conducting field observations and interviews in different contexts and has independently studied courses related to design thinking and industrial design. He has a strong interest in design and art and has conducted two years of ethnographic research into the maker community in Taiwan. The case instructor’s expertise lies in guiding students’ observations and interviews to discover the users’ needs. However, to overcome the limitations of his lack of technical expertise, he invited industry experts to co-teach and introduce external resources into the classroom.

TS: If students only stop at the proposing ideas stage, they will not see the final outcome, and the product cannot be iterated. Therefore, I hope that after completion, the students’ work can undergo another market test, and the complete production process can be recorded as an important memory for them. Also, if we want to do this, we need resources, which need to be related to the community if we want to use USR (University Social Responsibility: one project in Taiwan) … These outcomes are very expensive, including both the teaching of certain techniques, as well as giving students the opportunity to practice these techniques, for which you need tools, and every step costs money. If only proposals are made and no prototype is produced, the students’ understanding and perception of the entire project or their understanding of design thinking will not be deep enough. (TS_I_20230104)

As part of university-level interdisciplinary education, students were encouraged to solve real-world problems. The case instructor didn’t want students to only reach the proposal stage; he introduced more time, supported resources, and practical venues to establish a stronger connection between classroom content and the real world. Therefore, this course tended to be longer, and the holidays were often utilized. For example, the regular class time is three hours per week. However, during the later prototype production stage, students often used the holidays to make wooden playground equipment in rented venues. In addition, the resources needed to support classroom activities, such as professional guidance from industry experts, learning woodworking skills, mechanical equipment, wooden materials, and hourly fees, are costly. While balancing classroom learning and not allowing students to spend too much money, the case instructor must also administer the operation of the course before conducting a class. For example, he must apply for government project funding, invite corporate cooperation and sponsorship, contact primary schools for cooperation, and identify exhibition venues to ensure sufficient resources and venues for teaching.

Interdisciplinary teaching strategies and tools

Creating a culture of equitable instructor–student relationships through effective questioning and example-setting to foster classroom discussion.

During the first week of class, the case instructor told the students, “Don’t call me ‘instructor’ or ‘professor’, please call me C (the case instructor’s name) or coach. The reason is that I don’t want you to give up thinking, and I want to create an equal atmosphere in the classroom to encourage you to speak up more (R1_O_ 20220908).” During class, the case instructor is skilled in using questioning as a scaffold for student learning, often using “what”, “why”, and “how” to ask questions. Starting from the students’ experiences, the case instructor connects them to the concepts to be elaborated by the case instructor, to train students to think in more abstract ways.

TS: Have you ever experienced good design? Why was it good? What would happen if that design didn’t exist? How would you use that design to solve a problem if it were you?
TS: Next, I will introduce the inspiration and function of the EAT WELL product (a universal tableware design) through a crowdfunding video, which is mainly designed for patients with dementia. What is special about this tableware? What was the motivation behind creating it? What other special features were mentioned in the video? Was there any reference to the color used in other materials?… (R1_O_20220908)

During the process, the case instructor utilized questioning, scenario simulation, and discussions to facilitate students’ exploration of user needs, identification of underlying reasons, and generation of viable solutions through mutual discussion based on their life experiences or relevant cases. Subsequently, the case solutions were decided with a view to training students’ insights.

(During the class, a student was invited to simulate the perspective of an IDEO researcher role-playing a patient.)
TS: IDEO wants to improve the patient experience in Minnesota hospitals--starting with a change of perspective. (When you spend the whole day lying in bed in the hospital, all you can see is the ceiling.) So, once you change perspectives, what does the person see in the world?
TS: Why should the floor color in the hospital ward be divided into different areas?
TS: People can be in a more comfortable state, just like being at home. Although the hospital is also a public building, we also hope they will want to make patients feel comfortable when they see a doctor. (R1_O_20220929)

Encouraging the use of visual tools and vertical communication to facilitate dialog

The tools and methods commonly used in design thinking include ethnographic methods, personas, journey maps, brainstorming, mind maps, visualization, prototyping, experiments, and others (Micheli et al., 2019 ). These visualization tools allow users to engage in experiential learning and reflect on their actions (Elsbach and Stigliani, 2018 ). Therefore, using visualization tools for communication is crucial in design thinking. Significant disparities may exist due to individuals’ diverse cognitive and linguistic habits, especially in heterogeneous groups. Hence, in the second week of the course, the case instructor helped students establish a habit of using visual communication, extensively employing visual and graphic means to discuss issues, and encouraging students to conduct vertical communication after pasting their data on the wall, thereby making the process of design thinking more three-dimensional (Fig. 2 ).

TS: Please come up to the front with a pen and some sticky notes, and practice sharing and giving feedback to others. This process will help everyone develop the habit of team communication and collaboration.
(Students verbally share their observations on children’s game behaviors, while others give feedback using sticky notes.)
TS: Why do children want to play with this toy? Let’s think about it together. Did this child gain any value from playing with it?
S: This is a 7-year-old girl with a lively and imaginative personality. She plays a role-playing game with her own dolls, pretending to be a teacher and the students, because her mother does not buy her toys very often. (R2_O_20220915)

figure 2

Peer feedback using sticky notes (R2_O_20220915).

The case instructor also considered explicitly teaching students how to integrate ideas from different sources and imparting basic teamwork skills to provide comprehensive support for interdisciplinary learning. Achieving consensus is often necessary for feedback or teamwork for decision-making. The case instructor suggested that students can use dot stickers to provide their opinions, and when there is disagreement, using them to vote is useful. Subsequently, students often used this method for group discussion in assignments.

The idea is that everyone provides an idea, and if we want to select one, we vote. I think we use voting because C (the case instructor) first taught us a “dot-sticking” method, and then I just changed it to being online and then voting. (SL_I_20221228)

The purpose of the prototype was to generate ideas and solve problems. Regarding communication, a picture is worth a thousand words, and a prototype is worth a thousand pictures (Wang and Sung, 2022 ). Therefore, the case instructor suggested that students use geometric elements such as triangles, circles, and squares to complete a basic three-dimensional structure of the work and only use red, blue, yellow, black, and white colors. The paper version is cut into triangles, circles, and squares for combination (Fig. 3 ).

figure 3

Low-fidelity to high-fidelity prototypes (R1_O_20221027).

Experiential teaching activities: a study on site observation and user experience

Designers must observe, interview, or experience users’ daily lives to understand the users’ needs. The critical task of design thinking is to transform the observed or interviewed data into insights and create products and services that can improve people’s lives. Through empathy, designers can connect these insights with others’ perspectives and understand and feel the world through their experiences and emotions (Brown, 2009 ). However, this type of learning is not easy to teach or understand in the classroom. In interdisciplinary classrooms, instructors must design experiential activities that allow students to acquire relevant skills through experiential learning (Ryser et al., 2009 ). In this case, the case instructor asked students to observe children’s behavior in the playground (Fig. 4 ), interact with them, and help third and fourth-grade elementary school children design their dream backpacks. These all represent ways whereby students may observe children and explore their play needs.

figure 4

Observation of children’s play behaviors at a play area (R1_O_20220929).

Progressive practice of the design Point of View (POV)

It is essential to define clearly the problem to be solved, to generate a design point of view (POV). A POV can help designers gain deeper insights into the research object and problem, including the users, needs, and insight elements, by organizing user needs that have not been met from the collected data. With a clear POV, designers can develop focused problem statements and generate high-quality solutions. Therefore, designers must analyze, observe, and discover data, form unique insights through an integrative interpretation of a large amount of data, and help other designers to move to the next stage through an actionable problem statement. There may be multiple insights, and the designer must select the insight that meets the current users’ needs (Liu, 2021 ).

When defining the problem, the case instructor used progressive exercise tasks from existing cases and field data collected by students to enable them to practice forming POVs and improve their problem-solving skills. The case instructor used practical business cases for students to practice writing a POV and compared the differences with a case POV.

TS: Please watch the “Lucky Iron Fish: Shape of Health” video. The locals in Cambodia suffer from iron deficiency, which often causes dizziness, miscarriage, lack of focus in children, osteoporosis, etc. If a method could be found to provide enough iron ions to Cambodians through their typical fish and rice meals, the problem of iron deficiency could be solved. The research discovered that using iron cookware during cooking could release iron ions and address iron deficiency. How can the locals willingly put a piece of iron into the pot during cooking when they cannot afford to use expensive iron pots? Please practice writing the POV for this case. (R1_O__20220929)

After gaining experience writing case-based POVs, students practiced writing POVs using observation data from children’s play areas and from conducting dream backpack design workshops with children (see Fig. 5 ).

figure 5

POV exercise (R1_O_20221013).

During the practice, the case instructor reminded the students that questioning is crucial to uncovering needs, and observation can reveal other needs. At the same time, the case instructor used questioning to refine the quality of the students’ POVs.

S: The elementary school student’s original backpack is a Transformer with a hard shell. It has compartments on the left and right sides for storing umbrellas and water bottles.
TS: What are his expectations and difficulties in using the backpack?
S: He hopes it can be made easier to carry, as the hard shell makes it feel heavy on his back and waist. He wants it to look like a regular backpack and provide protection against bad guys.
TS: From this perspective, what needs might he have? He may be afraid of bullying and need protection and safety. (R1_O_20221006)

Through a progressive POV exercise, students can quickly discern a child’s play traits and tendencies from the types of games and play equipment they use. For example, a child inventing their own rules for playing a game indicates a more proactive and imaginative nature. A child drawing game equipment that involves shooting or destruction suggests a high need for stimulation. Conversely, more introverted children may require independent play equipment.

S: The elementary school students in our group drew slides, climbing nets, mazes, aggressive equipment, and obstacle courses. Therefore, our insights suggest they enjoy pursuing excitement, challenging limits, and continuous obstacle courses. (R1_O_20221020)

Collecting feedback for prototype testing and refinement

During the testing phase of the design thinking process, the main approach was to collect feedback from others to conduct testing and make revisions. Before testing, the case instructor invited students from other groups to provide feedback and suggestions on the prototype.

(Group feedback and questions after a board game proposal)
S1: Does just moving the cup provide enough hands-on experience for the children? The gameplay may be a bit monotonous; perhaps there could be more variation.
S2: What’s the difference between this and playing ping pong with yourself? What’s the selling point of this device to attract children to play? It feels like it could be made more exciting.
S3: How does the ball drop? Will the size be changed again?
S4: Chopsticks could be added to provide a barrier; otherwise, the ball drops too quickly.
TS: Does someone need to throw the ball from the top and someone catch it at the bottom? Maybe this could be less interactive and physical, and the gameplay could be more diverse. If more of these are made, can children compete and increase the richness of the gameplay? It is also important to spend time testing the spacing and adding unpredictability. (R2_O_20221103)

During the production of the play equipment, a professional carpenter was invited to provide structural recommendations for the student’s production of the 3D prototype of the wooden plank play equipment (Fig. 6 ).

The professional carpenter: This group of students is highly motivated. They encountered a problem with the positioning of the slope and its connection with the hexagonal structure. The slope is placed on a rectangular frame, and there is a possibility that the frame may collapse when children climb on it. One solution is to make the frame square instead of rectangular. For the upper part of the structure, two ladders are used. The thickness of the wood for the ladders needs to be determined. The structure may sag in the middle if the wood is not thick enough. Therefore, support poles may need to be added to the bottom, and the design of the upper wooden board also needs to be considered. (R1_O_20221117)

figure 6

3D prototype of the creative play equipment designed by a group (R1_O_20221117).

The role of the case instructor: guiding student thinking and providing direction and strategies

In interdisciplinary classrooms, besides teaching professional knowledge, the case instructor played a crucial role in guiding students’ thinking and providing problem-solving strategies and directions.

R1: What is C’s (the case instructor) role?
SG: He tends to play the role of “guiding without being overly directive”. In other words, he would provide us with some resources in the early stages but does not interfere too much with the content we discuss. If we encounter problems, we can discuss them with him. For example, when we were facing the second prototype revision round at one elementary school, he came to discuss it with us. As our entire play equipment was too big, he suggested a direction and guided our discussion toward the idea of “modular play equipment”. (SG_I_20221222)

As interdisciplinary educators, we must be prepared to allow students to feel uncomfortable and uncertain in their learning environments. However, we must also maintain a safe learning environment where students are free to make mistakes and their perspectives are valued and understood (Gardiner, 2020 ). Therefore, when students’ approaches and definitions of problem-solving deviate from the topic, instructors must intervene and guide them while valuing their ideas. The following is a discussion that the case instructor had with group members after class, as they had deviated from the main theme while working on their final proposal for play equipment.

TS: Last week’s successful experience seemed to have limited you to focusing only on game design instead of equipment design, which led you to break out of the original scope of the assignment to design equipment. I do not agree that you violated the assignment rules by making a game. I appreciate your out-of-the-box thinking, but this assignment was not about game design. You could incorporate fighting or obstacle race concepts and create various obstacles, such as throwing actions. I can accept starting with archery or throwing games as a basis for obstacle racing and turning the field into a space of thieves, where breaking through various obstacles can allow the children to complete different missions. (R1_O_20221117)

The challenges and responses of interdisciplinary teaching

Interdisciplinary teaching in practice: addressing technical skill gaps and enhancing learning experiences.

The case instructor has a humanities and social sciences background. Despite being able to introduce external experts and resources to compensate for their lack of technical expertise, some students still feel insufficient time is allocated for learning certain technical skills, such as woodworking.

The case instructor taught some content too quickly, and the time he spent teaching woodworking was very short for those who didn’t know. When he taught, he compressed some content, making me feel that professional learning was insufficient, and I needed to find additional information to understand it. … Although his manual skills were not very good, his biggest help to me was that he would ask us to conduct field investigations, which allowed us to observe many details. (SA_I_20221228)

Ideal interdisciplinary teaching requires close collaboration among scholars from different fields. Regular professional communication and dialog are essential to understand the interrelationships and differences between each other’s subjects and facilitate collaborative teaching with two or more instructors from different disciplines. Joint preparation is also required to discuss the goals, content design, teaching methods, and assessment strategies for interdisciplinary learning (Chang and Lin, 2019 ). However, due to school resources and practical considerations, a single instructor often undertakes interdisciplinary teaching in Taiwan. Therefore, a sole instructor of interdisciplinary courses must engage in interdisciplinary learning to accumulate different forms of professional knowledge and new perspectives. The case instructor must frequently engage in metacognitive reflection on professional limitations, introduce resources from other fields as appropriate, and have a basic understanding of other fields to become a bridge for students to engage in learning from different disciplines.

My major is not in design, so I must resort to some simple methods that students can brainstorm with. At this point, I learned about Bauhaus, a design school from before World War II who influenced design education worldwide. What I learned from Bauhaus was that, with the simplest colors, one could create many basic, minimalist designs. We don’t need to make students do something fancy. Instead, they can start learning about what design is and what form is by being able to decompose or transform the combination of these simple geometric shapes. I think that’s enough. I think the design thinking curriculum is not simply about learning about form but also about solving problems, and that form is just one problem-solving method. (TS_I_20230104)

Most university instructors typically have a single disciplinary background, and to engage in interdisciplinary course instruction, they must be open-minded and capable of reflective thinking. An open-minded attitude is essential in learning about different fields and understanding the professional terminology used in other fields. Additionally, interdisciplinary instructors need specialized knowledge, educational expertise, or teaching skills. They should constantly reflect on the content of the course and its relevance to the real world, finding a balance between reflection and routine and between thinking and action (Zeichner and Liston, 1996 ).

Navigating constraints: challenges in implementing design thinking cycles and community exhibitions in a limited-time academic semester

In a 16-week course with only three hours per week, students were expected to complete three design thinking cycles and organize a public exhibition in the community of their wooden play equipment. Throughout the process, the case instructor and students must overcome resource and funding challenges, work collaboratively in teams, and invest significant time and effort in completing various assignments and tasks. Due to their academic course loads, semester schedules, financial constraints, and the need for additional employment, students might encounter time limitations that may affect their participation in and ability to benefit from all the activities (Ryser et al., 2009 ). While most students showed a strong commitment to learning, the researcher observed that some students could not dedicate additional time outside of class to construct their wooden play equipment due to the required time investment.

For most of the courses I have taken, the requirements usually involve writing a paper or presenting a proposal. If it’s even simpler, like if everyone just wants to pass, we might do a group project where we all contribute information, and one person compiles it all to complete the report. However, in this class, I feel that many complex discussions and divisions of labor are required because we’re not just preparing a report. We also have to assign carpentry work, decide how to make proposals. and allocate labor. (SL_I_20221228)

In Taiwan, a typical university semester lasts 16 to 18 weeks, with each course typically consisting of 2 to 3 classes per week. Different schools have different regulations regarding semester length and course schedules. These regulations often constrain interdisciplinary courses, making it difficult for students to have a coherent or in-depth learning experience. Therefore, the school administration’s cooperation is essential (such as cross-departmental course selection systems, credit granting, and instructor allocation) (Chang and Lin, 2019 ). The case instructor believes that design thinking should have different learning directions at various stages of the academic system and suggests that schools should have more flexible implementation schedules for interdisciplinary courses, allowing instructors to design courses that enable students to have greater involvement and apply what they have learned (TS_I_20230104).

Balancing interdisciplinary teaching content and pedagogical principles: challenges and considerations

This interdisciplinary course requires three cycles of design thinking. Therefore, the case instructor had a busy and full teaching schedule in the classroom, potentially resulting in the omission of some skills instruction. For example, when university students designed dream backpacks with children, the researcher observed that the university students needed to improve their interviewing skills.

In one group of elementary school students working on the design of a dream backpack, the group of university students kept asking the elementary school students questions, which caused them to hesitate in their ideation of the backpack. They were unsure whether it was due to difficulty responding to too many questions, making it difficult to draw their ideas immediately. The university students asked many questions to stimulate the elementary school students’ imagination regarding the backpack design, but the elementary school students did not respond much. (R1_O_20221006)

In interdisciplinary courses, forming student teams is also challenging. The case instructor asked the students to post their expertise on the wall and recruit members with different skills to form teams. The case instructor hoped to have students from different disciplines on each team; this was a modification he made after teaching the course for four rounds. However, one group in which all seven students were from the same discipline remained, and they could not find another group to join. The case instructor compromised on this principle and allowed students from the same field to form a group.

Last year, there was another event where some people couldn’t be grouped due to overly strict grouping, and it seemed like we were exposing some people to exclusion. This year, a few people couldn’t be grouped with anyone else, such as students J, B, or C. It was difficult to divide them up, so I thought giving them a sense of belonging and letting them be in the same group rather than strictly enforcing the grouping was more important. Of course, I asked their opinions, “Are you willing to sacrifice your rights to work with people from other departments or different people?” They said they were willing, so I let them continue in the same group. (TS_I_20230104)

Furthermore, in authentic field-based courses, the case instructor allowed students opportunities for free exploration if they did not deviate too much from the topic. Even if the students had not considered the specific characteristics of the final practical field, they were usually given the freedom to proceed without too many restrictions.

In this group, I feel that they did not consider that the playground equipment should be placed in a park because the playground equipment exhibition is an event. Their initial proposition was “no pressure”, wanting introverted children to hide in the playground equipment alone. However, most of the people who come to play with the equipment in the park are accompanied by their parents, and basically, it is just for children to release their energy. Therefore, this setting is unsuitable, but I wanted to let them try it out. (TS_I_20230104)

Interdisciplinary teaching is a highly complex process that requires instructors to possess a level of interdisciplinary background and teaching knowledge to balance the learning proportion of professional knowledge, interdisciplinary teaching content, and principles in curriculum design. At the same time, they must also have sufficient resources, time, and practical experience to connect classroom content with the real world and consider using different teaching tasks to provide students with guidance scaffolding to develop hard and soft skills (Vogler et al., 2018 ). In addition, interdisciplinary design thinking courses should include growth-oriented reflection, explicit group work skills, and content with a real-world application (Skywark et al., 2022 ). As interdisciplinary instructors, they must also have a degree of flexibility and openness to accept unexpected situations that may arise during the process and afford students the space to try and learn from their mistakes.

Conclusions and suggestions

Conclusions, design thinking as a methodology for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching.

In higher education, instructors often lack interdisciplinary education and training in using interdisciplinary methods in teaching. Drawing on the case instructor’s interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching experience in this study, we propose that design thinking is a suitable methodology for interdisciplinary curriculum design and teaching. Design thinking emphasizes starting from practical situations and problems, exploring users’ potential needs and challenges, and valuing human-centered design and innovative solutions. In interdisciplinary courses, students come from diverse backgrounds and professions, and they can work together using design thinking to integrate their knowledge and skills to solve complex problems.

In interdisciplinary teaching, it is crucial to assess effective methods for fostering teacher-student relationships and promoting classroom discussions. Researching the roles of visual tools and communication in interdisciplinary dialog provides valuable insights, contributing to a deeper understanding of their impact on learning. Additionally, the study explored the influence of on-site observation and user experiences on students, assessing the feasibility of integrating these activities. Analyzing the progressive practice of the design POV sheds light on its effects on students’ problem-solving abilities. The study also emphasized the importance of feedback collection during prototype testing, presenting best practices and improvement recommendations. Lastly, an evaluation of instructors’ roles in interdisciplinary teaching concluded the exploration, offering insights and practical recommendations for enhanced teaching effectiveness.

This case study investigated the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum within a university setting, exploring instructional challenges and strategies for professional development and reflection, particularly in the unique circumstances of a university post-pandemic. The insights aimed to guide the advancement of interdisciplinary education practices in Taiwan and beyond. The research examined strategies used by instructors to balance disciplinary knowledge acquisition in interdisciplinary teaching, addressing limitations in their professional background and how this balance impacts student expectations. An evaluation assesses the resource and time investment required for interdisciplinary course development, exploring strategies to overcome associated challenges. Emphasizing the intricate connection between interdisciplinary course content and the real world, the study underscores the need for ample resources, time, and practical venues.

Cultivating interdisciplinary talent is crucial in higher education, leading to recommendations for allocating fixed funds in future university academic development plans. Instructors are encouraged to actively seek government research project funds and collaborate with established partners for enduring learning opportunities. Despite increased time investment and potential term-related limitations in interdisciplinary learning, the suggestion is to enhance student learning depth by introducing flexibility into the curricular structure, such as adopting a modular or intensive course system. The ongoing challenge of balancing interdisciplinary teaching content and principles necessitates continuous adjustments. In designing learning tasks, instructors should prioritize depth over breadth, avoiding superficial outcomes. It is crucial to adapt courses based on student feedback to achieve interdisciplinary teaching objectives.

Limitations and suggestions

This study investigated how a university instructor utilizes design thinking in interdisciplinary curriculum design and explored the teaching challenges and coping strategies. Due to space limitations, this study primarily focused on the case instructor’s perspective and did not present the students’ views on interdisciplinary learning. Additionally, to avoid disrupting classroom learning, the researcher and the collaborative observer only observed from the periphery of the classroom and did not observe student interactions during group discussions, so some information could only be obtained through post-interviews.

Furthermore, in this case, the case instructor had a humanities and social science background and thus emphasized observation and interviews. This issue requires further exploration into interdisciplinary curriculum design. The emphasis on interdisciplinary curriculum design could differ if the focus were shifted to instructors or students from a science and technology background. Future research could conduct comparative studies of interdisciplinary teaching among instructors from diverse backgrounds to understand their perspectives on interdisciplinary curriculum design. Finally, future research could also investigate students’ attitudes and opinions on interdisciplinary learning to understand more fully their needs and expectations of interdisciplinary education.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This work was supported by the National Science and Technology Council of Taiwan under Grant No. NSTC 111-2410-H-017-027-.

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    "1. A case study is an empirical inquiry • that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when • the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident" (18). The components of the research design are provided in chapter 2. After discussing the art

  8. Case Study Research and Applications

    Design and Methods Sixth Edition Robert K. Yin - COSMOS Corporation Courses: Case Study Research | Case Study Research | Intermediate/Advanced Qualitative Research | Research Methods | Research Methods in Sociology | Research Methods in Sociology October 2017 | 352 pages | SAGE Publications, Inc Download flyer Description Contents Resources Reviews

  9. Case Study Research: Design and Methods

    Case Study Research: Design and Methods Robert K. Yin SAGE Publications, May 7, 2013 - Social Science - 312 pages Providing a complete portal to the world of case study research, the Fifth...

  10. Perspectives from Researchers on Case Study Design

    What is a "case study" research design? Linda Bloomberg describes a case study as: An in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the richness and complexity of a particular social unit, system, or phenomenon.

  11. Designing research with case study methods

    The purpose of case study research is twofold: (1) to provide descriptive information and (2) to suggest theoretical relevance. Rich description enables an in-depth or sharpened understanding of the case. Robert Yin, methodologist most associated with case study research, differentiates between descriptive, exploratory and explanatory case studies:

  12. Case Study Research: Design and Methods

    Case Study Research: Design and Methods - Robert K. Yin - Google Books Try the new Google Books Books-A-Million Find in a library » This new edition of the best-selling Case Study Research...

  13. Case Study Design

    Case study methodology has a relatively long history within the sciences, social sciences, and humanities..Despite this long history and widespread use, case study research has received perhaps the least attention among the various methodologies in the social scientist′s research arsenal.á Only a few texts deal directly with it as a central subject, and no encyclopedic reference provides a ...

  14. The case study approach

    A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table 5 ), the ...

  15. Case Study Research: Methods and Designs

    Learn what case study research is, how it differs from other qualitative methods, and what types of data collection and analysis methods are used. Find out how case studies are used in various fields of social sciences and business, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of this research design.

  16. Case Study Research Design

    How to Design and Conduct a Case Study. The advantage of the case study research design is that you can focus on specific and interesting cases. This may be an attempt to test a theory with a typical case or it can be a specific topic that is of interest. Research should be thorough and note taking should be meticulous and systematic.

  17. (PDF) Case study research: design and methods

    Methods: The case study is based on a mixed method approach. A brief survey, thematic analysis, review, heuristic method, a follow-up discussion, and presentation are employed. Results: Students ...

  18. Case Study

    A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research. A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are sometimes also used.

  19. Case Study

    A Case study is: An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes includes quantitative methodology. Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research. Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event. Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

  20. Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th Ed

    Yin begins the fourth edition of his 6 chapter book by explaining that case study research is a "linear, but iterative process." This statement is supported by a visual which is displayed on the first page of each chapter. Each chapter contains one step in the linear process of case design (planning, designing, preparing, collecting, analyzing, and sharing) as well as it highlights how ...

  21. CASE STUDY RESEARCH: DESIGNS AND METHODS (3RD

    Full Text. CASE STUDY RESEARCH: DESIGNS AND METHODS (3RD ED.) by Robert K. Yin. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003. 181 pp. $26.95. This third edition of Robert Yin's Case Study Research: Designs and Methods updates and slightly expands earlier editions of the book. The new edition retains much of what made the first two best-selling research ...

  22. Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Applied Social Research

    Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods $85.00 (628) In Stock Book Description Editorial Reviews Providing a complete portal to the world of case study research, the Fifth Edition of Robert K. Yin's bestselling text offers comprehensive coverage of the design and use of the case study method as a valid research tool.

  23. Case Study Research Design and Methods, 3rd edition

    Case Study Research Design and Methods, 3rd edition. Dean Whitehead, Dean Whitehead. University of Plymouth, UK. Search for more papers by this author. Dean Whitehead, Dean Whitehead. University of Plymouth, UK. Search for more papers by this author. First published: 03 September 2003.

  24. "This Is a Look Into My Life": Enhancing Qualitative Inquiry Into

    As a methodology, case study design seeks rich and contextualized data and requires multiple data sources to construct a nuanced and complex understanding of the case (Stake, 1995, 2013). According to Merriam (1998), case study research generates concrete and contextual findings "anchored in real-life situations" (p. 41). Participants with ...

  25. Understanding implementation of findings from trial method research: a

    Overall study description. We designed a sequential exploratory mixed methods study with three linked components: 1. Case studies: which identified existing examples of trial method research projects with actionable outputs that were believed to influence trial design, conduct, analysis, or reporting practice."Actionable outputs" were defined broadly as any resource, generated from these ...

  26. Using design thinking for interdisciplinary curriculum design and

    This study investigates the utilization of design thinking by a university instructor in the development and delivery of an interdisciplinary curriculum. It examines the challenges encountered and ...

  27. Systematic design of a wind turbine by Design Structure Matrix (DSM

    Research Article. Systematic design of a wind turbine by Design Structure Matrix (DSM) method, case study: Lootak region. Alibakhsh Kasaeian a Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, ... The systematic design of a wind turbine is investigated using the Design Structure Matrix (DSM) method. As a complex system, a wind turbine has many ...